Environment and development in coastal regions and in small islands

Environment and Development

BRIEFS

COASTS

MANAGING COMPLEX SYSTEMS

The coastal zone - where land meets sea and where fresh and salt waters mix - contains many of the Earth's most complex, diverse and productive ecological systems. It functions as a protective buffer and filter between the land and the sea, and is increasingly valued for recreational and aesthetic purposes.

The ecosystems in the coastal zone are important for biological and economic productivity, storm protection and erosion control. Reefs, mangroves, wetlands and tidelands are vital breeding, nursery and feeding areas for the majority of known marine species. Worldwide, over two thirds of all marine fisheries species depend on coastal systems.

About 60% of the world's population - nearly 3 billion people - now lives within 60 kilometres of the coast. This number is increasing rapidly due to a combination of population growth, migration and urbanization. Two thirds of cities with populations over 2.5 million are situated near estuaries.

The unrestrained pursuit of multiple activities in coastal areas inevitably leads to competition for finite resources, environmental degradation and often environmental and social conflict. Furthermore, development practices which ignore the dynamics of coastal systems can be catastrophic, as evidenced by the increasing loss of lives, property and investment due to coastal flooding and erosion.

If coastal areas are to maintain their productivity and natural functions, there must be major improvements in the way we plan for and manage coastal development. Effective coastal management must be based on a solid scientific foundation, taking into account the limitations of natural systems, while balancing and integrating the demands of the various sectors which depend on these systems for their livelihoods.

THE NEED FOR ACTION

Evidence of increasing damage to coastal ecosystems and hardships for coastal populations is accumulating throughout the world. Pollution of estuaries and destruction of wetlands is paralleled by algal blooms, fish kills and the collapse of fishing industries. Natural coastal hazards such as storms, flooding and erosion are often exacerbated by unwise development and inappropriate management. The extent of our present situation pales, however, when considered in the light of the projected growth of coastal populations, compounded by the potentially devastating effects of global warming.

POLLUTION

Although media coverage of coastal pollution usually focuses on catastrophic oil spills, most coastal pollution is derived from far more mundane and widely dispersed sources on both land and sea. Land-based pollution accounts for over 75% of marine pollution and is generated by both urban and rural land uses. River systems, such as the Rhine, carry thousands of chemical compounds to the coast.

Discharges of sewage, processing wastes and street drainage from urban and industrial centres are of particular concern. An overabundance of nutrients derived from sewage, fertilizers, organic processing wastes and other sources leads to eutrophication, a process of rapid growth and decay of algae accompanied by oxygen depletion and the death of fish and other marine life. Where algal blooms are made up of toxic species, consumers of shellfish are at risk from shellfish poisoning.

Extreme examples of coastal pollution are usually associated with major urban and industrial centres, as in the case of Minamata, Japan, where 1,500 people became seriously ill and 200 died from eating mercury-contaminated seafood in the 1960s. Today, consumption of seafood gathered from many areas of European, North American and other coastlines is banned due to pollution. Hence highly productive coastal areas can lose their economic potential through pollution.

Deforestation and agricultural activities occurring far inland can also give rise to pollution of coastal systems through siltation and run-off of fertilizers and pesticides.

Marine-based activities, such as oil and mineral extraction, shipping, dredging and intensive aquaculture, also give rise to pollution of the sea and coastline directly. Although the incidence of oil spills resulting from tanker accidents has declined in the past two decades, some 3.2 million tonnes of oil still reach the sea annually, derived from both land- and sea-based sources. Intentional release of oil is a growing problem in many regions.

DEGRADED ECOSYSTEMS

Millions of hectares of wetlands and inter-tidal flats have been destroyed or damaged throughout the world as a result of uncontrolled development and land reclamation programmes. Blast fishing on coral reefs is still widespread in many tropical regions. Dunes and beaches are mined for sand or flattened to make way for shorefront homes.

Many coastal ecosystems depend on a finely balanced nutrient supply. They are fragile systems that can be destroyed or impaired by pollutants.

DECLINING FISHERIES

The world's fisheries are the main source of protein for many people, as well as an important economic resource. Over 60% of the population of the developing world derives 4017, or more of its annual protein intake from fish. The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) has estimated that over 90% of the world marine fisheries catch (approximately 82 million tonnes, including aquaculture, in 1991) is harvested from nearshore waters. This level is thought to be very close to the limit of sustainable exploitation.

In many regions, such as the Northwest Atlantic and the Mediterranean, over-exploitation is occurring and fish harvests have already declined. Meanwhile, population growth and new technologies are increasing the pressure to over-exploit fisheries. Competition between artisanal fishermen and highly efficient commercial trawlers has resulted in severely depleted stocks in many parts of the world, accompanied by increasing social conflict and loss of livelihood.

In addition to overfishing, fish stocks may be adversely affected by pollution, ecosystem damage and blockage of migratory routes. For example, intensive aquaculture operations are often constructed within valuable nursery habitat, reducing the viability of adjacent capture fisheries. Likewise, the construction of dams on hundreds of rivers including the Colorado, Nile and Danube have decimated coastal fisheries by blocking migratory routes of salmon, eels and other species, as well as by altering the discharge of water, nutrients and sediments downstream.

EROSION

Some coasts are subject to high rates of natural erosion. In other cases, erosion is intensified by human actions, such as the removal of mangroves, reefs, dunes and other coastal landforms. These natural barriers provide resistance to erosion and flooding that is difficult and costly to replace by manmade structures. Reefs and mangroves can also be indirectly destroyed by excessive pollution or sedimentation.

Coastal sediment transport patterns can be disrupted by the construction of jetties and groyne-fields as well as by dredging activities, resulting in increased erosion along many shorelines. Dam construction on rivers may drastically reduce the amount of sediment delivered to the coast, resulting in severe erosion in delta regions. In contrast, deforestation and agricultural activities occurring inland can increase the amount of sediment delivered to the coast. In Madagascar, for example, massive coastal sedimentation triggered by upland deforestation and erosion has reduced the freight handling capacity of the country's second largest port at Mahajanga to a quarter of its level a decade ago. The port may soon be closed entirely.

COASTAL FLOODING

Coastal storms and flooding have always taken a toll on lives and property, but even as efforts to mitigate storm hazards increase, the worldwide toll continues to climb. The major reasons for rising losses are the large increase in near-coast populations, and the continued human settlement of deltas, barrier islands and other low-lying coastal lands which are subject to flooding during storms.

The destruction of natural barriers to coastal flooding - reefs, mangroves and dunes - further increases the vulnerability of coastal populations, as does localized land subsidence, which may be induced by large-scale extraction of ground water, oil and gas.

THE MANAGEMENT PREDICAMENT

Coastal ecosystems are increasingly threatened by growing development pressures and short-sighted management policies which focus on human activities rather than the systems which sustain them.

Activities that degrade coastal ecosystems (e.g. clearing mangroves for aquaculture, mining coral reefs for building material) conflict with a wide array of activities (e.g. fishing, tourism) that depend on the continued functioning of these natural systems. Because of the complexity of natural systems in coastal zones and the broad spectrum of activities in these regions, resource-use conflicts can be difficult to identify and harder to resolve.

COMPLEX NATURAL SYSTEMS

The living and non-living components of the coastal zone form a natural system of great complexity. This complexity stems from the unique environmental conditions at the boundary between land and sea. Environmental conditions (e.g. winds, waves, tides and salinity) are highly variable and change gradually in moving from land to sea.

The resulting coastal ecosystems are uniquely adapted to their surrounding conditions, and can be both remarkably resilient and unexpectedly fragile. A coral reef can withstand the pounding of almost any storm, for example, but cannot cope with high siltation rates. Reef corals are often very sensitive to small changes in salinity and temperatures (as little as 2-4° C). There is already evidence of severe and widespread damage to coral reefs and related systems.

Conversely, mangrove systems can tolerate variations in temperature, siltation and salinity. However, these coastal wetlands are highly vulnerable to oil spills, disturbances to freshwater supplies and tidal water circulation.

All components of coastal systems are interrelated in some way, although cause and effect may not always be immediate or obvious. Coastal systems influence - and are influenced in turn by - processes taking place both far out to sea and well inland. Alterations in oceanic circulation patterns and associated temperature and nutrient supply, for example, can dramatically alter coastal fish populations - as has been repeatedly demonstrated by the effects of El Nino on Pacific sardine stocks. Similarly, the damming of rivers far inland can block the migratory routes of other species, causing the loss of important coastal fisheries located hundreds of kilometres distant.

MULTIPLE USES

Coastal systems have the capacity to support a wide range of activities. The sheer variety of activities in the coastal zone is a clear reflection of the value of coastal resources to human society. Unfortunately there are now many conflicting uses including urban, industrial and residential land uses arising from the broad and growing spectrum of human activities.

Capture fisheries and aquaculture: Total marine fishery catches worldwide stood at around 82 million tonnes in 1991, with an estimated 24 million tonnes per year taken by artisanal fishermen. Small-scale community based fisheries account for nearly half of the fish catch for human consumption and employ over 12 million people, or 95% of the fishing workforce. Fish from aquaculture provides annual harvests of about 5 million tonnes.

Shipping and trade: Estuaries and bays have historically provided the most direct means of access between coastal regions and the interior for national and international trade and commerce. These areas remain a major asset today, linking land to sea, providing important arteries for shipping and trade, and sites for ports, oil refineries and cities.

Oil and mineral extraction: The world's coastal areas contain a variety of mineral resources of considerable economic value. It has been estimated that 2 trillion barrels of oil, or about half of known onshore reserves, are stored on the continental shelves. Placer deposits of minerals including copper, iron, tin, silver, tungsten and gemstones have also accumulated near existing and ancient river mouths. Indonesia, for example, is thought to have 650,000 tonnes of tin placers offshore, and diamonds are mined off the coast of South Africa. Coastal areas also contain vast amounts of sand and gravel which are in high demand by the construction industry.

Waste disposal: A large proportion of land-derived wastes end up in the sea, where they are often dispersed and broken down through a combination of physical and biochemical processes. Coastal wetlands and mangroves also play an important role as filters for sewage, sediments and other pollutants.

Recreation and tourism: The coastal zone is a major attraction for people seeking rest and recreation. Beach holidays, diving, fishing and coastal ecotourism are fast becoming major generators of income and employment. Many island economies are highly dependent on revenues from coastal tourism, including those of Polynesia, Greece, the Caribbean region, the Seychelles and the Maldives.

OWNERSHIP

Land tenure and resource allocation issues are a fundamental source of conflict in many coastal areas. Who owns inter-tidal lands and the seabed and who has the right to harvest the associated resources? These areas are generally considered as common property to which there is open access. A policy of open access may be appropriate where demand is low relative to the availability of resources. Where demand is high, however, a system for allocating resources is of critical importance in limiting access and promoting sustainable development. Where such allocation is not practised, competition results in a "free-for-all" mentality, followed by resource depletion and social conflict.

Furthermore, uses of coastal resources that maximize their benefits to society as a whole often conflict with uses that provide the private land owner with the highest economic return. The conflict stems from the fact that many of the goods and services provided by coastal resources do not benefit the owner. For example, a mangrove wetland may yield the highest economic benefits to society when conserved as habitat and breeding grounds for fisheries but the highest return to a land owner when used for charcoal or aquaculture.

SECTORAL MANAGEMENT

A lack of understanding about the coastal zone often results in sectoral approaches to management, which are frequently short-sighted. Where jurisdiction for coastal resources is fragmented or sectoral, incompatible uses often occur, some of which are irreconcilable. For example, the siting of industrial plants or tourist hotels directly at the edge of the sea may foreclose options for fishing and other marine-dependent activities by degrading or destroying nursery grounds or polluting inshore fishing areas. Resolution of such problems requires reconciling the interests different users of the coast. Integration of resources with uses also requires changes in individual activities to ensure that coastal resources meet society's needs as fully as possible.

 

INTEGRATED COASTAL MANAGEMENT

Due to the complexity of human activities, natural systems and ownership in the coastal zone, an integrated management scheme is needed to allocate coastal resources efficiently and minimize environmental degradation. Choices have to be made between competing uses, and limits to resource exploitation must be set, if escalating conflicts and resource degradation are to be avoided.

Planning for sustainable resource management is based on weighing priorities, translating these priorities into policies, and finally defining goals. A management plan defines the steps required to achieve these goals, identifies the entities responsible for each step and establishes a time frame for action and review.

There is no one "right" way to manage coastal areas. However, there are certain common threads to all integrated coastal management plans.

KEY STEPS

The key steps in coastal management, and in decision making in general, are to:

• agree on the problems or goals;
• acquire the necessary information;
• analyze the information to better understand the problems and opportunities;
• generate an action plan to respond to these problems and opportunities;
• accept that it will be necessary to modify management;
• organize interagency co-operation, co-ordination, integration and leadership.

IMPROVED UNDERSTANDING

In order to practise effective coastal management, planners need to understand the way the natural environment and human activities are interconnected to form a system. Key aspects of the system include the environmental processes that create coastal ecosystems and maintain their health and productivity, functioning of coastal ecosystems, flows of resources that coastal systems generate, potential use of these resources to fulfil social and economic development objectives, and the type and extent of existing and future conflicts in resource use within the context of changing social, economic and political circumstances.

Each of these factors is greatly influenced by activities within and beyond the coastal zone. It is for this reason that the resolution of conflicts in the use of coastal resources requires a broad perspective on environmental processes and interactions among human activities. The definition of a narrow and rigid coastal zone boundary is therefore inappropriate.

TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES

The systematic collection and analysis of data yields vital information to the resource manager, including quantification of existing conditions, identification of information gaps and projection of future trends (e.g. population growth, sea-level rise). Routine monitoring also provides feedback to the manager, making possible the evaluation and adjustment of management actions. Ultimately, data collection and analysis should result in an understanding of the "carrying capacity" or limits for sustainable use of the system and an ability to predict the effects of changes to the system.

Systematic ocean observations, including observations of coastal zones, provide the knowledge and predictive capabilities needed for more effective coastal zone management. The Global Ocean Observing System (GOOS), initiated by the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission (IOC) of UNESCO in co-operation with the World Meteorological Organization, the United Nations Environment Programme and the International Council of Scientific Unions, provides a framework for international co-operation in this field.

Data collection: Although it is preferable to have detailed information upon which to base management decisions, in most coastal areas planners cannot afford to postpone action for lack of a sophisticated data base. Instead, planners should seek to develop effective management plans based largely on available data. Information derived from remote sensing or aerial photography is often extremely valuable in the initial stages of planning, particularly where existing data are sparse and human and financial resources are limited. Over a longer period of time, planners can implement more sophisticated data collection efforts to broaden understanding of coastal systems.

Data management: Because of the tremendous diversity of information relevant to coastal resource management, and the numerous potential users of these data, data management should be considered early on in the planning process. Establishment of a centralized data bank is one common approach to ensure data consistency and accessibility.

Data analysis: Overlay mapping is a valuable technique for the organization and analysis of diverse spatial information. By mapping ecological areas that provide critical "public" goods and services (e.g. nursery grounds) and areas of major coastal uses and environmental pressures, actual and potential resource-use conflicts can be identified. Geographic information systems (GIS) provide a particularly flexible approach to the manipulation of spatial data, although the initial training and data entry phases can be extensive and should not be underestimated.

Economic valuation and environmental assessment are complementary techniques for coastal planning. Environmental valuation is used to identify and compare the value of the goods and services provided by coastal ecosystems. Environmental assessment can be used to determine whether development activities are likely to adversely affect coastal ecosystems and these goods and services.

BROADSCALE AND TARGETED APPROACHES

A combination of broadscale and targeted management approaches is required to ease pressures on the coastal zone.

A broadscale approach entails developing legislation, regulations and economic incentives and disincentives applicable within the entire coastal zone. These management practices should be well integrated with both marine and terrestrial management practices (e.g. upland watershed management). The enforcement of existing regional and international agreements is important in this regard, as is the transnational harmonization of any new policies that may affect resources shared by several coastal states. Many insights can be gained from traditional approaches to the management of coastal systems.

Coastal areas also require targeted management schemes at the local level that are tailored to site-specific natural, socio-economic and political conditions. These approaches include the establishment of protected areas and the rehabilitation of heavily degraded ecosystems.

The protection of particularly productive, vulnerable or scenic areas is a key element in most management programmes. The conservation of these areas is an investment in preserving the ecological integrity and thus the overall economic potential of the coastal zone.

Apart from their intrinsic value in maintaining critical habitats and species diversity, protected areas play an invaluable role in sustaining fisheries, maintaining water quality and protecting against flooding and erosion, and are often an important draw for tourism and recreation. Coastal and marine protected areas often provide good opportunities for testing the value of different coastal management regimes, providing insights that can be applied to larger and more complex coastal and marine settings.

The high population density in most coastal areas makes coastal protected areas among the most difficult to establish. In general, marine protected areas should incorporate both terrestrial and marine ecosystems, to ensure the integrity of species, habitats and processes in coastal areas.

Land acquisition by non-governmental organizations provides a non-legislative vehicle for establishing protected areas. In Great Britain, for example, the National Trust owns and manages over 650 kilometres of the nation's most scenic and valuable coastline. Where funding for conservation purposes is in short supply, a variety of creative means have been devised to raise it, such as debt-for-nature exchanges and taxes-on tourism revenues or real estate transactions.

LEGISLATION

Establishing a coherent legal basis for coastal management can be extremely difficult. In most countries, a complex assortment of local, regional and national agencies have administrative responsibilities within this area. More often than not, their mandates overlap or conflict.

Coast-specific legislation varies widely among nations - some countries, such as the United States, have enacted laws specifically addressing coastal management In others, coastal management is addressed through environmental protection laws or water resources management laws (e.g. the Netherlands). Many countries have no national legislation on coastal management. The level at which jurisdiction is exercised also varies - in the Netherlands, for example, where coastal management is a matter of survival, there is strong control by the central government. Other countries (e.g. Australia) leave coastal management responsibilities to state or regional governments.

Whatever the approach, an effective coastal management programme requires legislation on a few basic points. These points include the clarification of ownership versus right-to-use, the identification of a lead agency for coastal management and a definition of its responsibilities, and the establishment of minimum standards (e.g. permissible contaminant levels).

REGULATION

Regulation is used to set limits on the types and intensity of activities occurring in the coastal zone. Typically, certain activities are prohibited outright (e.g. discharge of toxic wastes, blast fishing, destruction of wetlands), while others are controlled through the issuing of permits and licences. Regulations form the basis of many successful management programmes. However, their effectiveness is largely dependent on surveillance, the enforcement of penalties (fines, loss of licences, confiscation of equipment and imprisonment) and on public acceptance and support.

Zoning is a powerful regulatory technique used to delimit specific land and water areas for specific uses (e.g. residential, commercial, agriculture, aquaculture, conservation uses) and to enforce relevant standards within these areas. For example, rigorous construction standards may be imposed in areas subject to coastal flooding, and building setbacks may be required for construction along eroding shorelines. Zoning can be a valuable technique for guiding future growth. However, in areas which are already densely developed, zoning is of limited value and can have the unfortunate side effect of spurring inappropriate development, as landowners scramble to develop their properties before new restrictions come into effect.

ADMINISTRATION

A key factor in effective coastal management is having a lead agency to implement the management plan. This agency may have a variety of responsibilities, including planning and co-ordination, establishing standards, developing regulations, issuing licences and permits, surveillance and enforcement. Responsibilities may be restricted to a centralized national agency or shared between national and local administrative bodies. To operate successfully, agencies must be staffed by trained personnel and adequately funded. In situations where responsibilities for coastal resource management are fragmented, a co-ordinating board consisting of representatives from different agencies may be required, as has been done in the Philippines.

EMERGENCY PREPAREDNESS

Mitigation techniques for oil spills include prevention, preparedness (e.g. risk assessment and contingency planning) and technology (barriers, recovery systems, chemical and biological treatment). Availability of a trained and highly mobile crew is crucial for effective mitigation.

There are three major approaches to minimizing the destructive consequences of natural hazards such as coastal storms and tsunamis. The first approach is to avoid a great deal of death and damage through appropriate control of development in flood-prone areas (e.g. limitations on new construction in high risk zones, building setbacks, construction specifications). The second approach is essentially that of "informed retreat" through storm forecasting and warning systems, evacuation plans and storm-proof shelters. The third approach is coastal fortification through major engineering structures. This approach, exemplified by the Netherlands' Delta Plan, Thames River Barrier and Japanese tsunami barriers, can be very effective in conserving both human life and property, but usually involves high economic and ecological costs.

COASTS

THE WAY FORWARD

The benefits provided by coastal systems in the form of fisheries, transportation, natural flood and erosion protection, and other free goods and services have sustained human societies for millennia. As a result of over-population, poverty and unsustainable use of coastal resources, however, the "capital" of many of the world’s coastal and marine areas has been seriously degraded, and is further threatened by sea-level rise and other possible impacts of global warming.

Despite widespread coastal degradation, opportunities still exist for sustainable development and for remedial action in heavily impacted areas. A prerequisite, however, is a genuine commitment to coastal management, not just by governments, but also by the multitude of users and beneficiaries of coastal resources. Reconciling coastal conflicts will require measures which are more integrated, adaptive, system-orientated and far-sighted than the sectoral approaches commonly adopted.

To ease pressures on the coastal zone, a combination of broadscale and targeted management approaches is required. At the national and regional levels, the development of broadscale resource and use policies is important - including coast- and EEZ-specific environmental legislation and economic incentives and disincentives. Policies on human population may also need to be modified.

Individual coastal areas also require more targeted management approaches, tailored to local natural, socio-economic and political conditions. Targeted management approaches include operational plans to stimulate sustainable forms of multiple-use management, improved infrastructure, the establishment of protected areas, and rehabilitation of heavily degraded ecosystems.

The United Nations Conference on Environmental and Development (UNCED) added momentum to the growing consensus on the need for environmentally sustainable development. Chapter 17 of Agenda 21 - UNCED’s blueprint for action - highlights the need for the integrated management and sustainable development of coastal areas and outlines specific objectives, management activities and means of implementation. This recognition of the importance of understanding and managing coastal systems is a major landmark. As a follow-up to UNCED, several major international conferences are being planned on coastal zone management and marine pollution, as are new funding initiatives to support integrated coastal management at the national and regional levels.

		Introduction    Activities   Publications				word search
		Wise Practices   Regions   Themes