Small Islands

Environment and development
in coastal regions and in small islands

Evolution of Village-based Marine Resource Management in Vanuatu between l993 and 2001

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Appendix l. Vanuatu Village-based marine resource management regulations for tenured fishing grounds, l993 and 2001

ANEITYUM ISLAND

ANELGAUHAT

1993

Clans have independent control over portions of the fishing ground and inter-clan disputes prevent community-wide conservation measures. Clan measures include:
Total fishing closures, staggered so some fishing grounds are always open;
Trochus closures;
Rock lobster closures.

2001

Fishing grounds nearest village are closed to trochus, all methods of fishing for finfish, shellfish and bęche-de-mer.
MPA status being considered for waters surrounding a tourist development within village's tenured fishing grounds.

COMMENTS: Regulations have evolved considerably. Nominally (for calculating trends, see Tables 1 and 2) we will say no regulations lapsed and one (bęche-de-mer) was initiated.

EFATE ISLAND

MELE

1993

"There will be no taboos until various land claims are settled." Mele is also disadvantaged by being very close to the capital, Port Vila.

2001

An excellent reef closed since 1994 to cater to resort users.
Two year tabu on trochus following juvenile outplanting by the Fisheries Department.

COMMENTS: Largest village in Vanuatu. Peri-urban, with high unemployment among youth. Despite these unpromising circumstances, defense against encroachment by residents of the nearby capital is strong. Two new initiatives.

MANGILILIU

1993

Trochus closures with short openings periodically.
Bęche-de-mer closure had been abandoned recently.
Night spearfishing tabued.
Closure of village fishing grounds.

2001

Trochus closures, night spearfishing tabu and fishing ground closures all continue. Some gleaning of the undersized trochus for food, and some poaching of trochus and fish, but not seen as major problems. Trochus poachers apprehended and catch confiscated.
Tabu on catching turtles.

COMMENTS: All l993 management measures still in operation. One new one.

TANOLIU

1993

No tabus.

2001

Tabu on giant clam (Tridacna crocea) harvesting[17] but not well observed. Large areas of reef damaged by use of crowbars to extract this species which lives imbedded in coral.
Closure of a portion of village fishing grounds to all fishing. This closure is associated with a new tourism development.
Tabu on night spearfishing.
Tabu on bęche-de-mer.
Tabu on taking turtles. Not observed rigorously.
Tabu on using nets under consideration. .

COMMENTS. Five new controls initiated. The tabu on giant clams was not working well but this should change because of new fisheries legislation. Turtle tabu being reformulated in hopes of better observance.

SIVIRI

1993

Trochus closures.

2001

Trochus closures still operate, but significant poaching suspected judging by poor harvests during official openings.
Closure of 1/2 fishing ground, later rescinded due to unpopularity.
Tabu on bęche-de-mer.
Tabu on commercial (but not subsistence) harvest of giant clams.
Tabu on taking of turtles except for special occasions.
Permanent mangrove reserve under consideration.

COMMENTS: Since l993 four new controls initiated, one of which failed.

SAAMA

1993

No controls.
Some poaching by outsiders.

200l

Trochus closures, some poaching by locals.
Taking turtle tabu except on special occasions.

COMMENTS: Since 1993 two new controls initiated, but implementation seems shaky. Major prolonged ciguatera problem means little need for finfishing tabus. This village is unique on north Efate in that the residents are from other islands, mainly Pentecost and Paama, that had worked on Plantations prior to Independence. They now lease the land and reef of their village area from the neighboring village of Emua.

EMUA

1993

Fishing ground closed to all harvesting periodically.
Bęche-de-mer tabu.

2001

Bęche-de-mer tabu continues.
Fishing ground opened to general harvesting in l997 to compensate for new trochus closure. Fishing ground will stay open for foreseeable future, although permanent closure of an area around mangroves under discussion.
Three-year trochus closures begun in l997, continuing after harvest in 2000. Trochus closure concurrent with that of neighbouring Saama. Some poaching has occurred and poachers fined.
Tabu on taking turtles.

COMMENTS: Since l993 one closure lifted, two new controls initiated.

PAUNANGISU

1993

Nearshore fishing grounds closed to all harvesting for one year except for bivalves in sandy areas and crabs in mangroves.

2001

Half of their fishing ground closed from 1995-1997, some poaching by outsiders.
Tabu on bęche-de-mer.
Tabu on taking turtles.
Permanent closure of waters off a resort.
Long leadership dispute reduced conservation efforts. Dispute now resolved and the need for another fishing ground closure being actively discussed.

COMMENTS: Since 1993 three new controls initiated.

EPAO

1993

Half their fishing grounds closed to all fishing, some poaching by outsiders.
Bęche-de-mer not taken

2001

Fishing ground closure terminated after 3 years
Bęche-de-mer are still not taken.
Tabu on taking turtles.
Tabu on breaking up reef to get octopus.

COMMENTS: One regulation terminated. Two initiated.

ETON

1993

No management regulations.

2001

Periodic closure of half their reef to all fishing for two years.
Small mesh nets tabued.
Bęche-de-mer not taken.

COMMENTS: Originally no regulations. Now three, with more being planned

ERAKOR

l993

Trochus and other controls failed due to lack of respect for traditional authority among young people. (Erakor is a very urban village close to the capital, Port Vila)

2001

Closure of portion of fishing ground for a year in 1997 was well observed by most, and taboo breakers were beaten up and their canoes smashed, but the taboo was nevertheless unpopular enough that villagers wanted it discontinued.
Local law that those who turn over rocks on the reef while gleaning should turn them back again, but not well enforced. - Tabu on use of nets in waters off tourist resort.
Tabu on use of spearguns in waters off tourist resort.

COMMENTS: Typical problems of a large, peri-urban village, where traditional authority is weakening while population continues to grow and high unemployment make conservation difficult. Fish fence blocking lagoon entrance appears to be a serious environmental threat but chief unable to prevent it. Three new initiatives.

EMAE ISLAND

MARAE

1993

One half of fishing ground closed to all fishing.
Trochus closure.

2001

Complete two year tabu on fishing on a large portion of the reef.
The open portion of the reef cannot be used for commercial fishing.
Trochus closure has been abused.

COMMENTS: Land/reef ownership disputes are worsening. One new initiative.

EPI ISLAND

LAMEN BAY

1993

Trochus closure for whole reef
Some family closures of their portions of fishing grounds.

2001

Both l993 regulations still in effect. (Two of the current closures were year-long traditional closures to observe the death of a community member).
Two additional areas tabued specifically to keep out a live reef fishery that was planning to operate in the area.
Turtles protected inside the Bay (very abundant and easily approached).

COMMENTS: Three new initiatives.

MASKELYNE ISLANDS, SOUTHERN MALEKULA

PESCARUS

1993

Trochus closure.
Four clans each own part of fishing grounds. They alternated closing of one of these portions.
Night spearfishing tabued in some areas.
Gillnets tabued in some areas.
Taking crabs with eggs tabued.
Periodic tabu on taking octopus.

2001

Trochus tabus still in effect but poorly observed.
Tabu on bęche-de-mer.
Tabu on taking all invertebrates (e.g. octopus, lobster, clams, crabs) October through February, only line fishing and spear throwing allowed.
Night spearfishing tabued October through February.
Nets tabued October through February.[18]
Small giant clam preserve with no fishing of any kind allowed (MPA); clam recruitment around it very evident
Taking turtles tabu except during yam celebration

COMMENTS: Many commercially minded young men with declining respect for traditional laws or authority. Social fabric fraying. Three new regulations, but the observance of some believed to be poor.

LUTAS

1993

Trochus closure
Four clans alternate general closure of their fishing grounds

2001

Trochus closure still in effect.
Tabu on bęche-de-mer (to be in effect for the next 4-5 years).
Tabu on taking all invertebrates (e.g. octopus, lobster, clams, crabs) October through February; only line fishing and spear throwing allowed. µ
Spearfishing tabued October through February.
Nets tabued October through February.
Turtles eaten only during annual yam celebration.
Land crabs tabu during reproductive season, November to February.

COMMENTS: Unlike l993, different clans' reef closures now combined, but use of hook and line, spears, bow and arrow and diving by day (for finfish only) are allowed. Five new management initiatives.

PELONGK

1993

Trochus closure for 4-5 years.
Some fishing grounds closures except for line fishing and daytime spearfishing.
Night spearfishing tabued.
One area of about 150 by 150m was fenced off by one individual and turned into a giant clam reserve with about 1200 small clams transplanted there, all fishing tabued (MPA).
Fishing for some fish tabued "when they have eggs."

2001

Clam reserve still in effect. Closed to all fishing. MPA
Three year tabu on all fishing from deep water to mangroves on shore in one large area (very heavy fine for breaking this taboo).
Trochus closures reduced to 3-4 years (some poaching occurs)
Tabu on taking all invertebrates (e.g. octopus, lobster, clams, crabs) October through February; only line fishing and spear throwing allowed.
Spearfishing tabued October through February.
Nets tabued October through February.
Taking of turtle tabued but so unpopular that it was changed to restricting the eating of turtle to annual yam ceremony.
During the open season most net-caught fish can be used for subsistence only.
During the open season octopus can be caught for subsistence use only.
During the open season only fish caught near the boundaries with other villages may be sold.
Tabu on taking land crabs (Cardiosoma spp) and unidentified land crab from Nov to February during their reproductive season.

COMMENTS: The five-month annual tabus from October through February, are said to be timed to coincide with the time when most species, including finfish, have eggs. (This advice came from the Environment Unit). Regulations have evolved since 1993, but none have lapsed. Six new ones.

CENTRAL MALEKULA

LITSLITS

1993

Six month alternating fishing closures shifting between fringing reef and the reefs around four small mangrove-covered islands.

2001

Six month alternating closures still operating, although in the intervening period there have been some territorial disputes.
Fishing, except for gleaning, tabued in one passage.

COMMENTS: The older regulation not as well enforced and territorial dispute weakens the one new initiative

URI

1993

Mangrove crab closure for 6 months per year (planned to close for a full year in 1994).
Night spearfishing tabued.
Gillnetting tabued
One hundred hectare reserve closed to all fishing for 5 years.

2001

Giant clam reserve permanently protected from all fishing (MPA).
One hundred hectare reserve now designated as a park and permanently protected from all harvesting (MPA).
Tabu on oyster gathering in one mangrove area.
Cutting of mangroves tabued in another area.
Total fishing bans of different lengths in two different locations
Bęche-de-mer no longer collected.
Night spearfishing still tabued.
Night netting still tabued.
Ban on commercial collecting of shore crabs for six months of the year (includes season when the crabs have eggs).
Only limited catch of turtles allowed by chief.
Controls on harvesting mangrove crabs, bivalves and trochus under consideration.

COMMENTS: Strong support for marine conservation. Some individual controls have been modified much since 1993. Eight new management measures and more being planned.

URIPIV

1993

Three clans closed their fishing grounds for 1.5 to 2 years, one did not. Dissension between clans made consensus on conservation difficult.

2001

One fishing ground closed to all but line fishing.
Another completely closed.

The main purposes of both closures were to stop
l. spearfishing
2. use of nets.

COMMENTS: Two new management controls initiated since 1993. Inter-clan disputes over land/reef ownership still in evidence. Community requested assistance in drawing up plans for additional marine conservation measures, especially a marine sanctuary.

NORSUP

1993

Individual clans had trochus closures on their portions of fishing ground.
Total fishing ground tabu for one year.
Some inter-clan disputes made conservation difficult.

2001

Two 1993 regulations had lapsed. No current tabus, marine resources badly overharvested on their mainland holdings according to local opinion.

COMMENTS: Two previous regulations no longer observed. No current management. The urban nature of this village, so close to the provincial centre of Lakatoro, and with many inhabitants from other areas not familiar with or bound by local customs and authority, made enforcement difficult.

TAUTU

1993

Fishing ground closures being disrupted by clan disputes and outside political involvement.

2001

Serious inter-clan disputes continue to thwart conservation efforts. In addition all reefs have been ciguatoxic since l997, which further reduces conservation incentives.

COMMENTS: No change in fisheries management due to village disputes and ciguatera, but growing recognition of the need for it.

[17] Although the wording is ambiguous, recent national law prohibits export of wild (i.e. not cultured) giant clams from the island of Efate and its offshore islands.
[18] These three controls imposed from October through Febuary were agreed to and enacted by the Maskelyne Council of Chiefs and are also in effect in the two other Maskelyne Islands we surveyed (below) as well as the two other, unsurveyed villages there, Avok and Okei. These tabus were described as 'indefinite'.

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