Nature of the Forum contributions

22. The following working definition for wise coastal practices for sustainable human development was prepared at the 1998 Paris workshop:

23. From its inception, the Forum (username: csi; password: wise) has concentrated on wise practices in the belief that encouraging people to think constructively in terms of wise (as opposed to unwise) practices and ways to implement them, is a proactive way to further the practice of ICM and the achievement of sustainable coastal living. This is not to say that we cannot learn from unwise practices, indeed we can and should, because they contain a wealth of information about what not to do and how current practices can be improved.

24. During the first phase of the Forum (username: csi; password: wise), April to September 1999, participants were asked to submit example wise practices (EWPs), based on their own experience and to analyse these examples using the list of wise practice characteristics. Since November 1999, attention has concentrated on discussion of the EWPs, although some new EWPs have also been submitted. Of the 52 main contributions (EWPs) to the Forum, 49 concentrate on wise practices and three on unwise practices. The 49 EWPs can be grouped into four categories:

-	conceptual wise practices (4 EWPs): including those in the very early planning stages and implementation has yet to begin;
-	wise practices in the early stages of implementation (39 EWPs);
-	wise practices that have been implemented successfully for more than 8 years (3 EWPs);
-	wise practices that failed after a few years of implementation (3 EWPs).

Since these EWPs form the foundation of the Forum (username: csi; password: wise), and since 43 (83%) are either conceptual or in the early stages of implementation, ideas and concepts emerging from them are of a PRELIMINARY nature.

25. The four conceptual EWPs (18, 39, 74, 89)² discuss different aspects of ICM, including education, remote sensing, planning, and regulations.

26. The 39 wise practices that are in the early stages of implementation cover the entire scope of ICM and range from large to small in terms of scale and cost.

27. The three EWPs which are considered successful over a longer period of time deal with changing attitudes to traditional houses (22), the re-establishment of native horticulture (23), and the role of the private sector in marine conservation (185).

28. The three EWPs which worked for a time and then failed concern co-management in artisanal fisheries (12), coastal erosion (43), and beach sand mining (88). These EWPs are particularly interesting because much can be learnt from their reasons for failure. For instance in Uruguay (12), one of the partners in a fisheries co-management project made a unilateral decision to re-open the fishery without consulting the other partners. As a result the fishery collapsed. In Nigeria (43) a wise practice for some stakeholders (a sea defence structure) proved to be unwise for others, which evokes the often asked question ‘Wise practice for whom?’ While in Montserrat (88) a volcanic emergency interrupted the implementation of a wise practice. When the ‘emergency’ nature of the crisis subsided, it became apparent that the lessons learnt from the wise practice had not been implemented for a sufficient length of time to change attitudes. The fact that these wise practices failed does not necessarily mean that they were unwise, although in the case of the Nigerian example (43) this may be the case. The fisheries example from Uruguay (12) indicates a breakdown in the participatory process, possibly political factors intervened. While the Montserrat example (88) shows that a period much longer than three years is needed to change attitudes.

[2] All contributions to the Forum are referred to by their Forum URL number, see Appendices III and IV for listing of the contributions by Forum URL number and alphabetically by author.

29. The purpose of this section is to describe and bring together contributions relating to some of the major themes being addressed by the Forum (username: csi; password: wise) and to highlight themes of special interest. This section includes all the contributions to the Forum - the EWPs and the responses.

30. The major themes addressed by the Forum (username: csi; password: wise) to date, in order of the number of contributions focusing on them are:

Bearing in mind the intersectoral and interdisciplinary nature of all the example wise practices and the resultant discussion threads, some contributions to the Forum have been counted in more than one theme category. These themes are all inter-related and inter-dependent, thereby resulting in some unavoidable repetition in the discussions below.

31. Many of the themes discussed in the Forum (username: csi; password: wise) are also relevant to environmental management in general. Thus in formulating wise coastal practices and an ethical code of practice, future emphasis may be placed on the nuances in practices that are the result of the coastal/small island context.

32. Fifty-one contributions discuss small island³ issues. While several, often overlapping topics emerged, one of the over-riding themes is the need, indeed the necessity, to work at a very local level - whether village, community, or individual. Other themes can be related to those developed within the Barbados Programme of Action for Small Island Developing States, namely climate change, natural and environmental disasters and climate variability, coastal and marine resources, energy and tourism. One further theme emerging from the Forum (username: csi; password: wise) is the need to strengthen socio-economic development of island communities.

33. Strangely enough, while climate change is a major concern of many small island governments, it has not yet emerged as a major issue in the Forum. Mention is made of the topic in relation to the Caribbean (212). Other contributions mention the loss of islands in the Kepulauan Seribu in Indonesia (67), and one interesting contribution (87) describes the reverse situation where because of uplift an island in Finland is increasing in size, hence there is a need to plan, through the use of environmental impact assessment, for the use and ownership of this new land area.

34. Natural disasters are a major concern mentioned in several contributions, e.g. in Samoa where two cyclones devastated agricultural production (3) and in Montserrat where several hurricanes resulted in the loss of beaches and coastal infrastructure (88). Contributions (2, 239) discuss ways to prepare for natural disasters such as hurricanes by positioning new coastal development, especially tourism infrastructure, a safe distance away from the dynamic beach zone. Recognising that beaches are natural barriers protecting islands from natural disasters such as hurricanes/typhoons/ cyclones, as well as being a vital part of their tourism products, many contributors focused on ways to prevent beach sand mining - in the Caribbean (88, 149), in the Atlantic Ocean (49), in the Indian Ocean (52), in the Pacific Ocean (142, 151, 158).

35. The need to protect coastal and marine resources is another major issue addressed in the Forum. Several contributions focus on ways to improve fisheries management by articulating local and indigenous knowledge with scientific methods, in the Pacific (3, 8, 25, 46, 84, 156, 259), and in the Atlantic (20). The latter contribution in particular points to another phenomenon common to many small islands - dependence on one main industry, such as resource exploitation e.g. fisheries, or the provision of services, e.g. tourism. Conserving other marine resources, e.g. turtles, is addressed in Comoros in the Indian Ocean (59).

36. The potential and practicality of solar energy is discussed in the Seychelles (251) and in the Philippines (254). The relative significance of such efforts against a background of fossil fuel use by the air travel industry – a major component of the tourism industry on which many small islands depend - is described (254).

37. Managing tourism growth to protect the environment and cultural integrity is another theme running through several contributions, including some of those already mentioned (e.g. 2). Major tourism themes in small islands relate to uncontrolled growth (see also paragraph 44 under the Tourism theme); private sector investment in marine conservation, protected areas and the development of ecotourism: in Chumbe Island, Tanzania (185, 203, 214), in the Caribbean (188, 200), in the Pacific (195), in the Indian Ocean (52).

38. Another theme that is emerging is the need to strengthen socio-economic development of island communities: in the Indian Ocean (71), in the Surin Islands in Thailand (70), and in Indonesia (67, 257).

[3] The term ‘small islands’ in this paper refers to islands with a land area of less than 1,000 square miles (2,560 km²), see Section 2.3.1 for further discussion.

39. An over-riding theme, emphasised in more than 30 of the EWPs, and carried through to more than 20 of the discussion threads also, is that of enhancing the capabilities of communities and the public to value and maximise their resources. This may be compared to the ‘bottom-up approach’ to management, which is further discussed in Chapter 4. The empowerment process as discussed in the forum contributions focuses on entire communities, special groups and various forms of communication.

40. Twenty two of the EWPs concentrate on how to enhance the capabilities of local communities to value and maximise their intellectual resources (e.g. 77), their traditions (e.g. 22), their societal organisation (e.g. 41), their natural resources (e.g. 19), and their economic resources (e.g. 20).

41. Six of the EWPs focus on the empowerment of special groups, such as fishers (e.g. 12), and migrant workers (86). In a discussion on NGOs, following a contribution on ICM in the Indian Ocean (52), some interesting regional differences emerge relating to the organisation of groups. In the Comoros (141) village traditions and an unstable central government have resulted in self-reliance such that villages and communities are collectively organised through the establishment of a large number of NGOs in every domain. While in Tanzania (144) institutions such as NGOs are new to society.

42. Two EWPs, (42, 70) elaborate on the need to develop special means of communication in order to empower communities to value and maximise their resources. This theme of communication is further developed in relation to environmental journalism in Ecuador (210) and Tanzania (269).

43. Of the 37 contributions discussing the many different facets of tourism, several different themes emerge. These include the limited capacity of small islands to accommodate coastal tourism, the advantages of private sector investment in ecotourism, conflicts relating to tourism, positive aspects of cultural heritage tourism, and the importance of tourism to the newly emerging economies of Eastern Europe.

44. The limited capacity of small islands to accommodate coastal tourism is an important issue. A major discussion thread centres on the ‘self-destruct’ hypothesis of tourism, which describes the effects on local communities as an area progresses from an exclusive market for the rich to a mass market destination. This theory is discussed in relation to Cancún, a small island off the Yucatan Peninsula, Mexico (230, 246, 277) as well as other Caribbean islands (253). Other discussions cover an innovative approach to use coastal tourism to control the serious problems caused by beach sand mining in São Tomé and Principe (49), as well as the effects of beach sand mining on tourism in the Indian Ocean islands (52) and the Caribbean islands (88). A forward planning approach to ensure the future sustainability of coastal tourism development in small Caribbean islands is also described (2).

45. A successful example of private sector investment in marine conservation through the development of ecotourism is described in Chumbe Island, Tanzania, where ecotourism activities support conservation and education (185). Other contributors from the Pacific (195) and the Caribbean regions (188, 200) endorse this approach. Related discussion focuses on tourism as a tool to conserve cultural heritage (249) and natural heritage (233, 247).

46. Several interesting debates discuss various conflicts caused by tourism, which carry over into different discussion threads. Contributions cover topics such as who should bear the financial responsibility for the negative impacts of tourism - whether the tourism industry or host governments, and the resultant issue of taxation (206, 207, 214); valuation of coastal resources (212); and the various faces of ecotourism - a sustainable means of non-consumptive use (214) or a ‘catch word’ to hide many damaging tourism activities (207). The often conflicting goals of tourism and conservation in a Biosphere Reserve in the Philippines are discussed (78), in particular the hypocritical actions of some ‘environmental tourism operations’ (174). The conflict between tourism and conservation is carried through to another debate on how to achieve sustainable tourism and the need to limit economic growth before environmental degradation occurs (229, 230). Reducing potential conflicts through the use of tools such as environmental impact assessment is described (37). Another type of conflict, between tourism and industrial activities exists in Krk Island, Croatia (28), here development of cultural tourism conflicts with the need to maintain an established petrochemical industry.

47. Cultural heritage tourism is featured in the development of tourism in a large, undeveloped part of east Africa, Maputaland (39) and in an historic city, Essaouira in Morocco (29). The revival of traditional house design has inspired modern tourism architecture in Sardinia (22), and landscaping styles at a world famous tourism resort in Sardinia have assisted in the re-establishment of native horticulture in the surrounding region (23).

48. The importance of the tourism industry to the newly emerging economies of Eastern Europe is highlighted in Latvia (216) and in the Karelia region of Finland and Russia (100), in the latter case cross-border issues are an important consideration.

49. Fisheries issues are discussed in 32 contributions and are the main topic in eight EWPs. Major issues are community based management approaches (including co-management and management in protected areas); articulating local and indigenous knowledge systems with scientific methods; the preservation of marine habitats; and over-fishing.

50. Community based management of fisheries resources is a major theme featuring in fisheries-related EWPs from Uruguay (12), Haiti (17), Jamaica (53), Denmark (20), New Zealand (62) and Samoa (46). Some of these contributions are particularly interesting because they and their associated discussion threads describe specific ways in which community based management is being achieved and discuss problems encountered, e.g. in Samoa (81, 84, 153, 156, 259), in Uruguay (14, 16). Another interesting contribution (20) describes strategies based on local control of natural, financial and social resources that have been used to cope with the collapse of an important fishery in the Faroe Islands. Community based management in a marine protected area in Jamaica is discussed (53).

51. Articulating local and indigenous ecological knowledge with scientific methods is another important theme, especially in Senegal (48), Haiti (131), and in Samoa (3, 46). See also paragraph 55 under the theme on Local and Indigenous Knowledge Systems, which discusses traditional checks and balances and ways to articulate traditional knowledge and practices. The preparation of an ethno-ecological guide in Haiti (131) will assist in determining which traditional activities are sustainable. Turtle conservation is described as a relatively new practice in the Comoros (59).

52. Conservation of marine habitats is another important fisheries-related issue. This is highlighted in relation to mangrove habitats in Senegal (19, 56); and in relation to coral reefs in the Indian Ocean (52), in Chumbe Island, Tanzania (185, 188, 200, 195) and worldwide (267). The disastrous results of habitat destruction at Chilka Lagoon, India to create shrimp aquaculture are described (38).

53. The results of over-fishing in the South Atlantic Ocean (271) and in the North Atlantic Ocean (279) are described, as well as proposed privatisation measures to protect dwindling fish stocks in the North Atlantic Ocean (279).

54. LINK is discussed in more than 30 of the contributions to the Forum (username: csi; password: wise). Major themes include the contribution of traditional practices to sustainable resource use with particular emphasis on fisheries; the preservation and strengthening of traditional ways of life; promoting and using traditional practices in contemporary society. Several contributions challenge traditional practices and proposed ‘new traditions.’

55. The sustainable character of traditional resource use is a recurrent theme. Articulating local and indigenous knowledge with scientific methods in order to develop sustainable fisheries is described in Senegal (48), Haiti (131), New Zealand (62), and Samoa (3 and 46, and their resultant discussion threads). Most of these contributions emphasise using traditional practices as the basis for management, and enhancing these with modern techniques, where relevant and appropriate. ‘Modern’ techniques and practices often require an economic base, which the local community may not be able to afford. In one contribution, (3), traditional checks and balances, such as the declaration of taboos that restrict resource use in some waters at certain times, are being eroded by modern business practices whereby supply must respond to demand. The sustainable use of mangrove resources in Senegal through traditional community-based management is discussed (19, 56, 68).

56. Other contributions deal with preserving and strengthening traditional ways of life. These include rural living in India (77), and a hunting and gathering way of life in Thailand (70). In a discussion thread following a contribution on infrastructural development in Papua New Guinea (13), the cultural importance of land to indigenous peoples around the world is described. For indigenous peoples in particular, land cannot be reduced to a monetary value, as it is closely linked to their existence and identity.

57. Two ways of promoting and using traditional practices in modern day contexts are described for the island of Sardinia, Italy (22, 23), these relate to the use of traditional styles of architecture and of native plant species in landscaping.

58. Other contributions challenge traditional practices. This is where the concept of a ‘traditional practice’ must be carefully considered as it enters the market/monetary modality and becomes subject to outside factors. With just one exception all of these contributions came from small islands. The removal of sand from the beach is a traditional practice that is challenged in many small islands: in the Caribbean (88, 149, 154), the Atlantic Ocean (49, 88), the Indian Ocean (52) and the Pacific Ocean (142,151,158). In this context, a traditional practice, which has been sustainable in the past because of the small quantities involved, is now unsustainable due to the vastly increased quantities of sand being mined from the beaches. Against a background of continual societal change and renewal, new practices are proposed relating to the conservation of turtles in the Comoros (59), and marriage practices in a coastal community in India, where a large influx of migrant workers is bringing about social change (86).

59. Twenty six contributions discuss issues relating to freshwater resources in countries in Africa, Asia and Europe. Freshwater is now considered a crucial issue at global levels. Major issues include the control - whether public, private or small scale user - of the water supply in countries like India, Papua New Guinea and Tanzania; improving water quality and supply at the community level in Senegal; the unavailability or shortages of drinking water in large areas of India; and the provision of water supply.

60. One of the central themes concerns the control of water supply, and whether such control should be in the hands of governments, NGOs, private companies or the users. Contributions discussing these issues include India (41, 51), Tanzania (211), Papua New Guinea (213), and worldwide (205). In some small islands and remote coastal regions, water supply may be controlled by local power groups. The consensus of opinion from these discussions is that in these countries water supply should be controlled wholly or partly by the users.

61. Low cost solutions for improving the quality of underground water reserves are discussed in Senegal (26, 162), and in India (41). Community action is the focus of these contributions and ways to reduce pollution and provide a reliable water supply are proposed against a background constraint of poverty.

62. In India, large areas of the state of Gujarat experience unavailability or shortages of drinking water. Problems relating to excessive water extraction for industries such as salt production and the resulting salt water intrusions are discussed (e.g. 5, 6, 7). Low and high cost solutions are proposed, which include developing water conservation measures within the social fabric of society (208), imposing limits on the salt extraction industry (32), and installing tidal regulators to control salinity ingress in river deltas (45). There is also an interesting discussion about the living conditions of the salt workers and the communities in the area (160, 164). Similar problems due to saltwater intrusion are identified in other coastal cities e.g. Jakarta, Indonesia (33).

63. The provision of water supply in a newly developing area in East Africa (39) and improving water supply in an Eastern European country are also discussed (215).

64. Coastal erosion is addressed in 23 contributions and is also discussed in themes dealing with Tourism, Small Island Issues and Local and Indigenous Knowledge Systems. The major issues include mitigation measures to alleviate coastal erosion, beach sand mining particularly in small islands, and ways to resolve conflicts between changing coastlines and coastal infrastructure.

65. Various measures to mitigate coastal erosion are discussed. These include different types of structures in Essaouira, Morocco (178), and in Lagos, Nigeria (43 and discussion thread). In the Nigerian example, the need for impact assessments prior to construction is discussed (129). The advantages and disadvantages of alternative ‘softer’ engineering solutions are discussed in Maui, Hawaii (55) and in the Caribbean (239). Ways to mitigate coastal flooding are described in Nigeria (240).

66. Beach sand mining is a major concern, especially for small islands: São Tomé and Principe (49 and discussion thread), Montserrat (88 and discussion thread), Kosrae (142 and discussion thread), Indian Ocean islands (52). However, concern about this practice is not restricted to islands, and is also a serious issue in Nigeria (43). All of these contributions discuss ways to control and manage this damaging practice.

67. Ways to resolve existing and future conflicts between changing coastlines and coastal infrastructure are described and discussed in several contributions. A major theme is the creation of an adequate buffer zone between the ocean and coastal infrastructure. Examples include the Caribbean islands (2, 239), and India (40). An interesting contribution about Hailuoto Island, Finland (87) describes a reverse situation whereby land uplift is adding land area and there is a need to plan for the use of this new land through environmental impact assessment.

68. Planning is a theme in 22 contributions to the Forum. The discussion focuses on regional (international) planning, national planning, specific area planning and planning tools such an environmental impact assessment.

69. Since coastal areas go beyond political boundaries, it is not surprising that planning on a regional (international) basis is an important issue in the Forum. Planning for ICM on a regional basis is discussed in the West Indian Ocean islands (52) and in Maputaland (39, 184). A contribution describing planning for tourism development in Karelia (100) discusses some of the cross border issues in Finland and Russia.

70. Planning for ICM on a national basis is described in Madagascar (190). A cooperative approach involving several municipalities is proposed for planning in Latvia, for water management systems (215) and for sustainable development (216). In the case of Krk Island in Croatia, sustainable development guidelines are being developed (28).

71. Several contributions deal with specific area planning. Some of these describe planning measures and policies for the land immediately adjacent to the coastline, in the Caribbean (2, 239) and in India (40). Other contributions discuss planning for specific developments, e.g. port development in India (10) and the preservation of cultural heritage in the port of Alexandria, Egypt (72).

72. The use of environmental impact assessments as a planning tool are the subject of several contributions, from Papua New Guinea (13, 21, 30, 47), from the Philippines (37), from Finland (87), and from Nigeria (129). The application of remote sensing is another important planning tool (89).

73. Gender issues, particularly in relation to women, are highlighted in several contributions to the Forum. These cover women's roles in society, their roles in the family, their economic role, and the need to treat women as a special group. For as Boina (71) points out:

74. Women’s role in society, particularly their vital importance in rural communities, is described in Maputaland (39). Their role within the Indian caste system and the tradition of arranged marriage are discussed (86).

75. The important role women play within the family is described in relation to the design of traditional houses which reinforces family ties (22), and women’s efforts to use native plants to embellish their homes (23). In rural areas in developing countries, women are often the first to be affected by natural resource destruction, as their role involves finding fuel, fodder and water for the family (223).

76. Several contributions focus on the economic role played by women in society. Their importance in the fishing industry, particularly in processing and marketing is highlighted in Senegal (48), and in Haiti (17). Their role in the beach sand mining industry in the Caribbean (88) will require the provision of alternative livelihoods if the mining is to be stopped. The need to improve women’s economic role is discussed in the Kepulauan Seribu, Indonesia (67) and several initiatives - both successful and less successful - are described. This theme of improving women’s economic roles is further discussed in Jakarta Bay, Indonesia (73).

77. Discussion on whether there is a need to treat women as a special group is ongoing. For instance, in Krk Island, Croatia (28) it is felt that there is no need to treat women separately, for gender participation has been balanced throughout the project, largely due to the stimulating input of a local mayor - a woman. In contrast, in a particular project relating to waste management in the Comoros (71), there is a need to specially promote women in order to reach other women. Similarly in a fisheries project in Samoa (46) there is a need to hold separate meetings for women, untitled men, fishers and titled men, so that each group has the freedom to express their own opinions without feeling intimidated by others. On a similar note, a mangrove restoration project in Senegal (19) showed the special needs of women, as well as other groups, have to be determined and fully analysed in order to achieve a successful project. Within the Islamic culture, women do not swim, so providing girls with training in swimming and snorkelling at Chumbe Island, Tanzania (185) has the twofold effect of providing environmental education and developing future political support for marine conservation. On balance, the contributions show that there is a need to treat women, as well as other groups, in a special way, and this largely depends on the societal and cultural context.

only a few contributors discuss human rights, despite the fact that it is a key benchmark for sustainability. The Preamble to the Universal Declaration of Human Rights states very clearly:

The reasons for this lack of attention are unclear. Some contributors may have assumed that the basic tenets of human rights as stated in the ‘Universal Declaration of Human Rights,’ and included here in Appendix V, are in place in the context of their particular project or activity. Possibly some contributors do not associate ICM with human rights. In fact, this situation may depend on the different attitudes, treatment and attention to this topic within national policies.

79. The collective rights of minority groups are discussed, in relation to indigenous peoples in Thailand (70) and in Papua New Guinea (13, 21), and in relation to migrant worker groups (85).

80. The issue of human rights is discussed in a sustainable development project in Krk Island, Croatia (28). Here the involvement of all the different actors is stimulating from a human rights point of view in a young republic, which has only recently initiated a process of democratisation. A similar view is apparent in Latvia (216), and in Finland and Russia (100).

81. Several related issues have arisen in the Forum, concerning ethical and moral considerations in relation to the continuity of humanity. The important question of social contract - responsibility to collective well-being versus individual freedoms and rights – is raised (3 and the following discussion thread). The issue of the continuity of humanity raises ethical and moral questions at a higher level than political and social control (44). Cross cultural studies may help delineate shared values and wise practices might be regarded as an international, ethical conduct instrument against which proposed developments should be assessed and evaluated:

‘.. in an attempt to bring reason into play for the faith of human survival’ (3 by Voi).

82. Having outlined the major themes being discussed in the Forum, it is of interest to discuss their geographical distribution and thus how representative the Forum is of the global community. This is particularly important in view of UNESCO’s constitution which refers to ‘… the peoples of the world’.

83. By 30th September 2000, a total of 52 example wise practices (EWPs) have been contributed to the Forum (username: csi; password: wise), and 118 response/reactions. It should be noted that the primary contributions, the EWPs, are listed in the Forum by geographical region. Because of the way in which the Forum was originally structured, the responses and reactions to an EWP are, for the most part, listed in the same geographical category as the original EWP, even though they often refer to a different region of the world. The following table and Figure 2 (and a more detailed table with country groupings in Appendix VI) presents the actual geographical distribution of the reactions/responses.

Region	Number of Example Wise Practices	Number of responses/ reactions	Total number of contributions
Africa-East/Southern	4	21	25
Africa-North (Arab States)	2	8	10
Africa-West/Central	5	13	18
America-North	0	1	1
America-South/Central	2	8	10
Asia-South	10	14	24
Asia-Southeast	6	11	17
Caribbean Islands	4	10	14
Europe	8	1	9
Indian Ocean Islands	4	3	7
Pacific (Small) Islands, Australia, New Zealand	5	19	24
Worldwide*	2	9	11
Total	52	118	170
*Contributions not specifically concerning conditions and activities in a particular country or region have been classified as ‘worldwide.’

84. Before discussing the distribution in detail, it should be recognised that at the beginning of the Forum, EWPs were requested from persons involved in the pilot projects and university chairs. Thus the locale of these particular activities (see Appendix I) has played a significant role in determining the geographical distribution of the contributions.

85. Considering the continental areas, the distribution is interesting in that Africa-East/Southern and Asia-South are the highest scoring regions. While there are a large number of EWPs from Europe, there has been very little reaction or response to those primary contributions. The low number of contributions from America-South/Central reflects the absence of pilot projects and university chairs in that region and may also be a result of a language constraint, although contributions originating from that region are posted in English and Spanish.

86. Considering the islands in the oceanic regions of the world, the largest number of contributions has come from the Pacific region, followed by the Caribbean. While the Indian Ocean Islands and the Caribbean Islands generated the same number of primary contributions (EWPs), reaction and response has been much greater from the Caribbean region. This may partly be the result of a language constraint, as noted in the case of America-South/Central, although contributions originating from this region are posted in English and French.

87. Any further analysis of the geographical distribution of the contributions, and its significance, must await a future reorganisation of the Forum.

88. Since the early 1990s, the need to treat small islands as a special group has been identified. Islands are microcosms, their social and environmental dynamics are easier to grasp and they are the most dependent of all regions on their coastal resources. All the issues of ICM come up in solid relief in small islands. As the U.N. Secretary-general, Mr. Kofi Annan, said during the Small Islands Developing States meeting, Barbados + 5 (U.N. New York, September, 1999):

90. A problem arises as to the criteria to use to define a small island. Various groupings of small islands e.g. Small Island Developing States (SIDS) and the Alliance of Small Island States (AOSIS), are somewhat difficult to deal with in the context of this Forum, mainly because of the political nature of these groups.

91. The same report cited in paragraph 89 indicates that no definition for small states, whether based on size, population or Gross Domestic Product is likely to be fully satisfactory:

‘……… for in practice there is a continuum, with states larger than whatever threshold is chosen sharing some or all of the characteristics of smaller countries.’

92. In this document and the context of the Forum, an arbitrary size threshold has been used, such that the term ‘small island’ refers to islands with a land area of less than 1,000 square miles (2,560 km²). However, in light of the proceeding paragraphs, it is recognised that conclusions relating to small islands may be taken as applying, at least in some degree, to larger islands as well.

93. The following islands, which are discussed in the Forum, fall into this category of ‘small islands’:

94. Most of these islands, with the exceptions of Bonaire, Cancún, Kosrae, and St. Croix were the subject of specific EWPs. (Comoros was featured in three EWPs and Samoa in two EWPs). Thus, of the 50 EWPs dealing with specific regions of the world (as distinguished from the two EWPs in the Worldwide category), 15 EWPs focus on small islands. The remaining 35 EWPs deal with coastal regions in larger islands or continents.

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