retour      
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                 
    The Transfer of knowledge  
Explaining Art Visually
(From Vol. I, n°2, 1948, pp. 148-53)
            
                Museums and temporary exhibitions: introduction
(From Vol. IV, n°1, 1951, pp. 5-10)
                                                                                                     Museum, Psychology and architecture
(Volume XXVI, n°3, 1974, pp. 157-77)
                                                                     Keeping a record of a cultural heritage in the National Museum of Anthropology, Mexico City
(Volume XXX, n°3/4, 1978, pp. 179-84)
         What is an "intelligent museum"? A Japanese point of view
Vol. XLI, n°4, n°64, 1989, pp. 241-3
 		           
  The concept of an international travelling exhibition was advocated by the UNESCO Museum's Programme when the Organization first came into being. It can be seen as pioneering the enterprise of circulating cultural information in which museums would become both the suppliers of materials and supervisors. The nineteenth-century museum characteristically catered for individual enjoyment, but changing public expectations were taken into account in the twentieth century. This resulted in the museum's primary objective become collective education, with emphasis being put on ensuring contact with the material and real world through the use of the collections. Originating in the United States , this conception favoured visual experience and the needs of the learner, and made the museum a place which played a very effective role in the transfer of knowledge. The previously inaccessible collections became tools for providing knowledge to young visitors through individualized play activity. Young people still constitute the category of visitors at which which the majority of the museum's knowledge transfer resources are aimed.The museum did not escape the theorization of its functions in the urban and functionalist fever of the 1970s. Its architecture was now seen as constituting a social space designed for communication, and its collections as having to be presented in a way which ensured the optimum conditions for transmitting meaning. Exploratory analyses were made of the social, physical and psychological aspects of museum work. These analyses adopted the language of experimental science, expressed the desire to provide the knowledge transfer models with a scientific basis. A new type of museum was required which had a much broader approach. It would cover a wide range of subjects and address the major contemporary issues by means of objects, writings and field studies. This was the trend which would lead to the present credo governing the diffusion of information.Informatics, which initially gained ground through the use of documentary databases, testified to the increased application of science to knowledge transfer. It also brought profound changes to the organization and functions of the museum as a space for dissemination of knowledge. The present use of the multimedia plays a strategically important role in the evolution of museum policy. The transposition to the museum of forms of logic and habits originating from other media ensures renewal, as much as it raises questions about the future of the museum's specific characteristics in a knowledge society.
 
       
 

1-9. Illustrations from the exhibitions: From Nature to Art, Space and Distance, Still Life Comes to Life, and Explaining Abstract Art, at the Gallery of Art Interpretation, Art Institute of Chicago.

   1.
African Negro Masks influenced Modigliani's painting. This is not a woman, this is a painting of a woman.		   2.
How does the artist suggest space on a flat surface? By colour. See what changes occur when white replaces colour in one small part of this picture (copy of a painting by Miro). These two Japanese prints made from the same blocks differ spatially only because of colour.		   3.
Note how these objects are consciously arranged. They are unified by using one colour: brown. Diagram shows how light areas are opposed to dark in this painting. Copy of painting with other objects shows that arrangement is more important than subject. By introducing one strong, colour balance is lost. By eliminating any part - like the mushrooms- the entire composition is greatly weakened. 		  4.
How does the artist suggest space on a flat surface? By scale. These two boxes have the same dimensions. Notice how the two figures affect their surrounding space.		   5.
The Abstract: a summary or an epitome (from Webster's dictionary): some abstractions result from reduction or elimination. These six lithographs by Picasso show step by step how naturalism can be reduced to an abstract minimum		   6.
The artiste transforms nature how?
By exaggeration, does this exaggerated figure by Picasso seem to be running faster than the correctly proportioned copy? By line: proportions of the figure of Botticelli are 9 heads. Proportions of average figure and 6 and a half heads. Botticelli elongated his figure to attain flowing rhythmic line.
   7.
The artist transforms nature. WHY ? For compositional reasons. 1. Painting by Matisse, 2. Diagram showing interlacing of composition, 3. This composition is weakened by naturalistic handling. The artist transforms nature. WHY ? For greater realism. XV Century portrait. XX Century Portrait. The artist shows more than the camera or eye can see. The artist transforms the nature. Why ? because of lack of experience and knowledge. Paintings by young children.		   8.
Diagram showing continuous curved movement and bold opposing diagonals. The electric quality of this painting is not due to these common place objects but to the brilliance with which Manet painted them.		   9.
How? By light and shadow. Two similar heads are changed by different lighting		   10.
Different approaches to sculpture presented in Looking the sculptures Exhibition at the Gallery of Art Interpretation, Art Institute of Chicago		   11.
The spaces between…our capacity to see two things in relation to each other depends on our awareness of a third - the size and shape of the space between them. In this Indian bowl, background and design are interchangeable. Intervals of space are as much a part of visual design as the silences between sounds are the part of the design of the music. In this sculpture the artist has worked with the space around the figure as well as with the material itself. Space even moves through it.		  

  1.
Nordiska Museet, Stockholm. Temporary exhibition: Weights and measures. An imaginative and attractive display at no great cost, introducing the exhibition and symbolising the essential features.		   2.
Nordiska Museet, Stockholm. Temporary exhibition: Weights and measures.		   3.
Museum of Arab Art, Cairo. Temporary exhibition of Turkish carpets (1944) partly from the museum's own collections, partly on loan from private collections.		   4.
Museum and Art Gallery, Bristol. Circulating exhibition from Belgium, 1944.		   5.
National Museum of Wales, Cardiff. Exhibition: Weeds and weed control.		   6.
Municipal Museum and Art Gallery, Belfast. Temporary exhibition: seasonal life of animals of the region.		   7.
Dansk Folksmuseum, Copenhagen. Temporary exhibition: "Little table set thyself…"An exhibition of 2,000 years of table-ware. The settings for the period from 1600 to 1850 were displayed in interiors of the museum. In each installation, a living person in the costume of the time was sitting at the table or serving.		   8.
Dansk Folksmuseum, Copenhagen. Temporary exhibition: "Little table set thyself…"		   9.
Nasjonalgalleriet, Oslo. Temporary exhibition: Sculptures of Edgar Degas, 1948. Temporary exhibitions do not differ in installation from the permanent displays.		   10.
Castle Museum, Norwich. Temporary exhibition: Portraits in the Landscape Park, from Norfolk House and Suffolk House.		   11.
Palazzo Ducale, Venice. Exhibition: Giovanni Bellini, 1949. The exhibition rooms were of two types; in the reception rooms of the Doges' apartment the Renaissance ornamentation was retained while others were arranged as actual exhibition rooms, the original richly decorated gold and blue grooved ceiling alone remaining. The walls were hung with light gold velvet and the masterpieces were placed on screens covered with beige canvas and framed in wood. These screens projected from the walls and were placed so as to receive the best possible lighting. Except for a few authentic frames, the paintings were exhibited either unframed or in simple frame of gilded wood.		   12.
Palazzo Ducale Venice. Exhibition: Giovanni Bellini, 1949. 		  13-16. The Brooklyn Museum, Brooklyn
Special exhibitions are one of the most important features at the Brooklyn Museum: they may offer an opportunity to display objects from the permanent collection in a new light; or to keep the public abreast of current development in design, painting, etc., they are always a drawing card as a result of the publicity they receive. In spite of the extra work involved, they are also a stimulating task for members of the curatorial staff.
   13.
Temporary exhibition: Chinese metalworks, 1949. 		  14.
Temporary exhibition: Five thousand years of fibers and fabrics (embroidery) 		  15.
Temporary exhibition: "Clothing one world", 1947. A special effort is made to avoid exhibiting the objects behind glass. 		  16.
Temporary exhibition: Urban culture of the Tokugawa Period (1615-1867), 1950.		   17-20 American Museum of Natural History, New York.
This exposition of head-covering, ways of dressing the hair, face decoration and adornment, neckwear and necklaces is an example of striking temporary exhibition, presenting important objects of fine quality in a fresh fashion, very attractive to the public, making use of simple materials tastefully and effectively handled. It is intended to attract the attention of casual visitors in order to make them reflect and to instruct them. The labels are direct and simple but they conform to sound standards of scientific scholarship. This type of installation, with dramatic lighting, and emphasis on contrasts and striking effects, is suitable for an exhibition of limited duration for it will appear out-moded as the styles of displays that inspired it have gone out of fashion.
   17.
Temporary exhibition: Masks and men.		   18.
Temporary exhibition: From the neck up, Hair Fashions.		   19.
Temporary exhibition: From the neck up. Hat styles.		   20.
Temporary exhibition: From the neck up. Lips-ornaments.		   21-24. Museum d'Histoire naturelle, Paris   21.
Exhibition of Fish: Fishing, Science, Art (1948). The entrance hall, which can be seen from
outside contains a display illustrating the general theme of the exhibition by means of a résumé of the various sections. The display consists of large boards illustrated in bright colours, together with a number of objects of large dimensions.
   22.
Desert plants Exhibition (1947) Poster. Since the exhibition had to be widely advertised (posters, sign-boards, articles in the press) in order to attract as many visitors as possible over was a limited period, the design of the poster is very important: it had to catch the eye without being flashy; and it had to be simple but sufficiently striking to attract notice. Even the title of the exhibition, which will appear on the poster, must be carefully studied.
   23.
Buffon, Exhibition (1949). General view of exhibition hall. Large hall of the Museum transformed for temporary exhibitions. As the result of the use of light material, the general effect is one of sober elegance. Since the hall is very bright, the bay windows have been blocked two-thirds of the way up by painted pasteboard panels, which serve the double purpose of dulling the glare and providing extra wall space. The tops of the bay windows shed a soft light. Pasteboard screens, painted on both sides, are arranged between the showcases. The whole is painted with tempera (stippled and easily washed off). The colouring is grey-beige, which has the effect of throwing the exhibits into full relief.
   24.
Desert plants Exhibition (1947). Systematic presentation of species. Stained wooden cases, complete with labels slots, are used for this exhibition; the plants, in pots, are placed inside the cases on a layer of turf, from which they absorb water. The pots are concealed with sand.
  

25-33 Tekniska Museet Stockholm
Temporary exhibitions arranged principally for the following purposes:
- To show a series of museum objects in a way that is not possible in any permanent exhibition;
- To give the museum officers an opportunity, during the period of organisation and installation, to study a subject or a special theme from a new point of view;
- To attract new visitors to the museum and to impress them in such a way that they may discover the museum itself to be worth a visit;
- To be the museum's ambassador and to serve as a link with the country at large by travelling to places outside the capital. The museum tries to avoid exhibitions on any theme, which can be explained as well or perhaps better by an article, a book or a pamphlet with well selected illustrations. The exhibitions are intended for the man in the street, but the specialist may also find things of interest. By preference, original specimens of all kinds are used; some of them to be worked by the visitor himself, others by a demonstrator. Exhibitions are combined with lectures, experiments and films. The illustrations show some types of temporary exhibition and some methods of display.

   A well know Swedish industrial firm (a stearine candle factory) celebrates its centenary by an exhibition.   25.
Some personal objects and portraits are shown to remind the visitors of the man who founded the
factory
   26.
Machines, raw materials and products, old and new, illustrate the development achieved in a
hundred years.
   27.
Even such a simple thing as a burning candle with its light, which nowadays seems so romantic,
can be explained from a technical point of view
   A government department (the State Patent Office)) shows in an exhibition its activities past and present.   28.
An explanatory panel designed by an artist and made in the museum's workshop (as is all other
equipment for temporary exhibitions) explains the organisation and work of the Office. Original objects complete the story. The table boards fixed on the supports with four screws can easily be replaced by showcases.
   The Tekniska Museum holds an exhibition in collaboration with non-technical associations or museums.   29. To show insects as "engineers", and to illustrate the good and the harm they do, specimens are loaned from a natural history museum and supplemented by explanatory panel.
   30.
Travelling exhibitions (Sweden Textile Industry yesterday and today)
Objects, labels, diagrams, etc., are mounted on plywood boards (2 x 1 m) which can be combined vertically or horizontally to form sets of various shapes, and can easily be packed for transport. The boards are varnished black, so that the are not dirtied by handling during the transport, and all other colours on labels and lettering harmonise with this background.
   31.
The historical as well as the modern section of the travelling exhibition is equipped with full size machines which can be put into action by the visitors themselves, or -as shown here- by a guide demonstrating a hand-driven spinning machine more than one hundred years old.
   Technique and science today (Measuring instruments   32.
The Exhibition µ46 was held in 1946. First came some panels explaining fundamentals, e.g. what µ (1/1000mm) means in comparison with a human single hair. One caption refers, in Swedish translation, to some well-known words of the opera Rigoletto, thus appealing to the visitor the curiosity and encouraging him to read the rather long text.
   33.
Modern instruments are displayed unprotected, standing against removable partitions, or stands of standard size, easily used in various combinations.		  
  1.
Musée de l'Horlogerie, La Chaux-de-Fonds: In one of the underground rooms of this museum of man and time, the public watches a team of experts repairing clocks and watches. 		  2.
The visitor-exhibit relationship seen as a quantitative problem. The smaller the ratio of visitors to exhibits the more opportunity for a concentration and for each individual to enter freely into a relationship with the exhibit. 		  3.
Group viewing an exhibit. Close contact with the exhibit is no longer possible without disturbing other members of the group. Visitors must arrange themselves around the exhibit keeping an equal distance from it.		   4.
A large number of visitors viewing an exhibit. The quality of contact with the exhibit decreases with the each succeeding semi-circle of viewers. The spacing of exhibits may be determined by the extend to which the "spheres of influence" of the different exhibits tend to overlap. 		  5.
Division of group among several exhibits by means of copies. Copies of the original can be scattered over a large area and the relationship of a large group to the original replaced by the relationship of smaller groups to copies. The opportunity for closer contact with the exhibit must be weighed against the fact that the exhibit in question is now only a copy, the original of which is kept in the museum store.		   6.
A way of dealing with the problem of large amounts of information and large numbers of visitors. The exhibits are brought to the visitor rather than the visitor himself moving from one exhibit to another. The advantages of presentation of the exhibit with appropriate audio-visual effects must be weighed against the need to restrict the amount of information and the passivity of the viewer. 		  7.
Co-ordination of exhibits and supplementary information areas. Parallel arrangement. The exhibits are accompanied by information areas of varying intensity. Exhibits are placed along the main circuit. If this arrangement is readily comprehensive to the visitor it makes for a varied and evenly paced museum visit. 		 

8.
Intercalation of exhibits and information areas.
The disadvantage is uncertainty as to whether information should precede or follow presentation of the exhibit.
The exhibit-information axis is identical with the main circuit. Difficulty in understanding the arrangement of the subject-matter may, however, oblige the visitor to retrace his steps.

   9.
Dispersal or grouping exhibits. Exhibits and information are not arranged in a systematic way but information is related to each exhibit separately. The "highway" from one exhibit to the next is clearly discernible but there are "byways" through information areas as well. The flexibility of this type of arrangement can, however, result in visitors getting in each other's way as they follow different itineraries. 		  10.
Linkage and separation of display areas. Grouping of exhibits and separation of display and information areas. The path to be followed by the visitor must be clearly indicated. Under this system the visitor is still free to decide whether or not he wishes to inspect the information area.		   11.
Isolation of information areas. An "open plan" effect is created and the visitor can be sure of not being distracted in the information areas, but the feeling of continuity is lost. The substantiality of the information cubicles may indeed have an adverse effect on appreciation of the exhibits.		   12.
Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. Lipchitz Exhibition. Example of integrated audio-visual information. Art exhibition featuring a videotape interview with the artist. In a glass booth set in one corner of the room the visitor can concentrate his attention on the audio-visual information. The booth does not spoil the over-all effect of the exhibition due to its transparency. 		  13.
Römisch-Germanisches Museum, Cologne. Here the audio-visual information is presented outside the field of vision containing the works of art and therefore does not interfere with it. Architect : Heinz Röcke		   14.
The form in which the information is presented must strike a balance between originality and familiarity. It must teach the recipient something new without being so unfamiliar as to be comprehensible. Such are the basic dialectics of communication.		   15.
Diagram showing the possibilities of integrating a museum in a town. Strategy for introducing visitor to museum 		  16.
Victoria Arts Centre, Melbourne. The plain façade, set behind a moat, which adds greater mystery, offers no clue as to the museum's contents and arouses curiosity. The opening of the entrance and the single bridge over the moat create a suggestive effect.
Architects:
Roy Grounds and Alan B. Nelson 		  17.
Reuchlinhaus, Pforzheim. The entrance and approaches to the museum complex, which consists of a number of separate buildings, are designed to attract the visitor. Note the use of a variety of materials connected with the museum's contents. Architect: Manfred Lehmbruck.		   18.
A series of attractive vistas in the entrance hall. Simplified ground plan. From the hall one can see the objects representative of each section.		   19.
Wilhelm Lehmbruck Museum, Duisburg. Temporary exhibition are used as a "shop window" at the museum entrance (right). As they approach, visitors have further views of the sculpture section and a glimpse of the sculpture courtyard. Architect: Manfred Lehmbruck.		   20.
Forestry museum, Gävle (Sweden). The restaurant area is in a central position. It may be used as a meeting-place, a recreation area within the museum or an external area. There are several points of contact with the circuit of the display area. Access is therefore easy and a variety of possibilities offered. Close dependence on the museum's activity. Underground plan: 1. Exhibition area; 2. Cafeteria; 3. Reserves; 4. Store-rooms; 5. Corridor; 6. Cloakroom; 7. Unloading area; 8. Laboratory; 9. Workshops; 10. Archives; 11. Offices. Architects: Sven H. Wraner; Erik Herlöw and Tormod Olesen. 		  21.
Louisiana Museum of Fine Arts (Denmark): the restaurant is situated at the end of a linear circuit and commands a fine view. Communication with a reading-room heated by an open fire makes for a relaxed atmosphere; rest, reflection or discussion will form the conclusion to the museum visit. Ground-floor plan: 1. Entrance from the pre-existing house; 2. Connection corridors (side-lit); 3. Two-storey high gallery; 4. Lantern-lit galleries; 5. kitchen; 6. Library; 7. Cafeteria; 8. Sea. 		  22.
Louisiana Museum of Fine Arts (Denmark): The glass wall eliminates any sense of separation between the tree outside and the visitor inside. Children enjoy an enriching game as they discovered the work of art (Tinguely exhibition). Architects: Jörgen Boe and Wilhem Wohlert 		  23.
Nicosia Cultural Centre (Cyprus): Different cultural activities gradually merge in a carefully structured central contact area. Simplified ground plan. Architect: Manfred Lehmbruck.		   24.
Nicosia Cultural Centre (Cyprus): Pavilion system with central entrance hall. 1. Entrance court; 2. Library, 3. Open-air exhibition and performing arts; 4. Exhibition gallery; 5. Theatre. Architect: Manfred Lehmbruck 		  25.
Model for a cultural centre in Cairo. Loose grouping of buildings devoted to various cultural activities: 1. Information; 2. Opera house; 3. Opera studio; 4. Exhibitions; 5. Museum; 6. Art Gallery; 7. Garden restaurant; 8. Restaurant; 9. Parking. Architect: Fritz Bornemann. 		  26.
Centre Georges Pompidou, Paris. Compact system. Model. Architects : Piano & Rogers; Ove Arup & Partners		   26.
Centre Georges Pompidou, Paris. Compact system. Model. Architects : Piano & Rogers; Ove Arup & Partners 		  27.
Combination with other buildings. Possibilities for integration in the urban scene. External surfaces may be overlaid with shops or similar urban enterprises and windows set in external walls on the "shop-window" principle. 		  28.
A pedestrian way or bridge through the museum gives the public a visual impression of the museum's attraction and method of presentation. Problems involved are the positioning of the only entrance and the co-ordination of museum areas located on different levels. 		  29.
Extension of public thoroughfares into a museum implies long opening hours. Security is a problem, which can, however, be overcome technically, perhaps by taking measures to protect each object individually. The provision of cloakroom facilities is another problem, which can only be satisfactorily dealt with by installing automatic transport systems. 		  30.
Integration in the urban environment in a large modern city. As a general rule motor transport is allow to run alongside the museum. Pedestrian ways can be integrated into the museum. Entrances will be positioned to exploit the possibility of external features such as underground stations, squares and footpaths. On a large site individual town-planning features can be amalgamated in the internal connections. The museum complex can be integrated into the urban scene, provided that its architecture is in keeping with the character of the town. 		  31.
History museum, Amsterdam. A new street has been given a glass roof and a heating system and can thus form part of the museum as well as being a public thoroughfare. 		  32.
Ecomuseum of the urban community of Le Creusot-Montceau-Les-Mines. The fragmented museum covers an entire region. It inspires various activities in different places.		       1.
Index card for vases recto		   2.
Index card for vases verso. Opposite the headings, the alphanumerical code 		  3.
Basic all-purpose card for archaeological, ethnographical and historical collections		       1.
The central control-room of the Yokohama Science Centre		   2.
The LAN host a computer in the programming room of the Yokohama Science Centre? Visitors can view this room as an exhibit. 		  3.
A temporary event for families: "Let's learn how to manage the personal computer"