ED-98/CONF.202/REF.7
October 1998
Original: English

UNITED NATIONS EDUCATIONAL,

SCIENTIFIC AND CULTURAL ORGANIZATION

1. A World Conference on Higher Education will take place in Paris from 5 to 9 October 1998 and the decision was taken to precede it by five regional preparatory conferences which took place in Havana (November 1996), Dakar (April 1997), Tokyo (July 1997), Palermo (September 1997) and Beirut (March 1998).

2. According to the Director-General of UNESCO, Federico Mayor, the 'preparation of the World Conference should be guided by the principles of equity and merit (Article 26.1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights) and it should result in a comprehensive worldwide plan of action involving the international organizations responsible for training and development programmes. It should contribute to the renewal of higher education and propose a new university pact guided by three watchwords: quality, relevance and international co-operation'.

3. The documents of the conferences held in Latin America and the Caribbean, Africa, Asia and the Pacific, Arab States make reference in their first paragraph to the Universal Declaration on Human Rights, which, in its Article no. 26, states that `Every one has the right to education' and that `higher education shall be accessible to all, on the basis of merit'. The references to human rights show that a consensus was established at the world level. Access must be fully open and democratic. The unique criteria for access or non-access must be merit, no discrimination of whatever nature being acceptable. The conferences in Latin America and the Caribbean, in Africa and in the Arab States also mention the convention against discrimination in the domain of education, in which the States agree on making `higher education accessible to all on the basis of individual capacity'. The document of the Palermo conference in its first paragraph states that institutions of higher education `should act critically and objectively on the basis of rigour and merit, actively promoting intellectual and moral solidarity by serving needs'. This principle is reflected in the proposals for action, in particular regarding access, democratisation, diversification, organization of institutes and the financing of the institutions.

4. Other documents are mentioned in the introductions of the declarations completing a framework to the documents:

5. In addition to these documents, the declarations of the Dakar and Tokyo Conferences make reference to the work and publications of a series of other governmental and non-governmental organizations in the field of higher education, including the Priority Africa Programme of UNESCO and ministerial conferences. The Dakar Conference also noted the decision of the United Nations to improve co-ordination of the actions for Africa of Organizations of the United Nations system. The Regional Conferences benefited from the reflections made by other organizations, such as UDUAL (Union of Universities of Latin America), IOHE (Inter-American Organisation for Higher Education), CRE (Association of European Universities), OECD (Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development) and IAU (International Association of Universities).

6. In the final part of their introductions, the declarations of Latin America and the Caribbean, of Africa and of Asia and the Pacific stress both the economic and social reality and the trends for higher education in these regions. These trends are also present in the Beirut Conference. These `pictures' are important, because many of the proposals made in the plan of action aim to correct dysfunctions in the systems and to make them more adaptable so they can help remedy the problems of the regions. This is also the result of the way the debates were organized. Each of these conferences had an opening speech, in which an overview of the situation of the region and of higher education was presented. Carlos Tünnermann's opening conference in Havana is the best example. This macro-approach was preceded by a great mobilization effort. In Latin America and the Caribbean more than 4000 individuals connected with higher education were mobilized by means of 36 meetings: 23 at national level and 13 at subregional level. These meetings helped achieve several objectives which were summarized by the director of CRESALC as follows: i) mobilization of the social actors connected with higher education as regards the problems to be discussed in the Conference; ii) provision of theoretical and methodological instruments for the organization of the discussions during the meeting; iii) obtention of inputs for the supporting documents; iv) testing of the work methodology designed for the Havana meeting. One result of this mobilization was that the 688 participants in the Regional Conference in Havana were thoroughly familiar with the themes, were motivated, and could participate actively in the debates. In the other conferences, the average participation was between 300 and 400 persons.

7. The Conferences were not classified into a specific `category' which means that they were neither governmental nor non-governmental meetings. In Dakar, in April 1997, for example, some 350 persons were present at the inauguration of the Conference and at least 250 participated fully in the debates. In a very democratic way, ministers, deputy ministers, secretaries of higher education, rectors, professors, students, and representatives of several international organizations were seated side by side, looking together for solutions to the problems of the region and of higher education institutions.

8. In Tokyo, more than 300 hundred persons from over 30 countries were present at the United Nations University (UNU) facilities where the conference took place. The involvement of UNU, of international, regional and sub-regional NGOs active in the field of higher education in the region, the participation of intergovernmental bodies such as RIHED - Regional Institute for Higher Education Development -, the organization of meetings in the region, such as the international conference in the Philippines a few weeks before the Tokyo Conference, helped to give to the Conference up-to-date information on the reality, trends and issues faced by higher education institutions presently in Asia and the Pacific.

9. The fact that the Palermo Conference was jointly organized by UNESCO-CEPES and CRE (the European Association of Universities) was important for the success of the mobilization. More than 400 participants came to Palermo. The experience and leadership of the CRE, jointly with the capacity of the staff of CEPES, had mobilized regional institutions of higher education, representatives of the productive sector and even several directors of international student organizations located in Europe.

10. In Beirut, great interest was raised by the Student Forum, with the participation of a number of international, regional and national organizations presenting the students' approach on issues facing higher education. The presence of the President and of the Prime Minister of Lebanon, the participation of numerous ministers, and the fact that the majority of the Arab States attended the conference was also a result of a strong mobilization in the region and of the interest the conference raised. Discussions were very comprehensive. Strong emphasis was given to new technologies and to the contribution of higher education to the whole educational system, in particular to secondary education.

11. In Latin America and the Caribbean, a synthesis of the present situation of higher education in the region was presented. It reads: `Higher education in the region reveals the following trends: a) an enormous increase in student enrolment; b) a persistence of inequalities and difficulties when attempts are made at democratization of knowledge; c) a relative restriction of public investments in this sector; d) a fast-paced increase and diversification of institutions that work in the field of tertiary education; and e) a growing participation of the private sector in the realm of education'.

12. In addition, the Havana declaration makes reference to the following points: i) in spite of efforts made, many nations are still far from achieving the necessary coverage and quality in higher education; b) contradictory processes of internationalization and regionalization and others affect the development of higher education in the region, as do economic problems such as the foreign debt, the import of goods and services, world trade etc; iii) some principles of the reform of Cordoba - in particular related to democratization and links with society - are still valid; iv) improving quality and relevance of higher education requires a significant transformation of the education system as a whole; v) the solution to financial problems should be found in the transfer of resources from other sectors that are not a real priority for society.

13. The Dakar declaration dealt in detail with the economic, social and political problems which the Member States face in this region, such as poverty, hunger, disease, unemployment, illiteracy, the debt burden, unfavourable trading conditions, inflation, all forms and types of conflicts, and environmental degradation. These problems affect higher education institutions which cope with an increasing number of students and face declining budgets, deterioration of structures, bad conditions for teachers, gender inequity at all levels, insufficient resources for research, or for pedagogical training of teachers.

14. Along the same lines, the Tokyo declaration analyses the situation of the region, putting emphasis on the exceptional diversity and variety within Asia and the Pacific, the rapid growth and in-depth transformation of societies, and the rapid rate of scientific and technological development followed by a shortage in the supply of qualified professionals. It also points out that although much progress has been made in higher education, institutions in many countries are still far from achieving the desired number and quality of graduates required by the new economic situation in the region.

15. The analysis of trends related to higher education shows that higher education across the Asia and the Pacific region is under considerable strain (increased number of students, reduction of funds, etc.). It also reveals gender inequality among students, academic staff and senior management; a tendency to concentrate resources in urban areas; frequent and serious mismatches in the demand for and supply of highly trained personnel; and great institutional diversification with dramatic increases in the number of private higher education institutions.

16. The European Conference took a different approach. Debates were organized around twenty case studies, most of them based on universities in the Western countries. Universities were requested to reflect on their prospects based on six dimensions: mission and institutional positions, teaching and learning, preparation for the world of work, advancement of knowledge by research, transmitting cultural values in the European context and strategies for organizational change and development.

17. The document adopted at the end of the meeting in Palermo is based on the Conference debates, which were influenced by the empirical method adopted and also by the fact that the key lecture presented by the Human Resources Director of an important oil company, dealt primarily with his approach to university-industry links. As a consequence, the Palermo document goes further than the others on the relations between industry and universities.

18. The Arab States Conference mentions the existing diversity in the region in spite of the fact that they share common historical, linguistic and cultural traditions and heritage, the impact of globalization which resulted in increase demands for specialized professionals in every endeavour of life capable of sustaining high standards, the progress made in recent years in the development and strengthening of higher education in Arab countries and the support to initiatives aiming to the establishment of an Open Arab University.

19. A synthesis of the main issues in higher education in Arab Countries is presented, with reference to the following issues: high rates of population growth and increasing social demand for higher education, increase in student enrolment without adequate allocated financial resources; blockade, occupation, and external impediments and constraints in a number of Arab States, limiting higher education; all Arab States looking to increase female enrolment; lack of close links between higher education institutions and general education and between universities and other post-secondary institutions, pressures on institutions to provide remedial programmes in order to improve the quality of enrolled students; in most cases, lack of adequate programmes and projects to serve local communities; recent development of private institutions; the status of higher education teaching personnel often not meeting some international standards set down in the Recommendation concerning the Status and Conditions of Higher Education Teaching Personnel; greater awareness of student requirements; need to promote new teaching and learning processes; need to increase co-operation with industry; lack of highly qualified graduates in some disciplines, unemployment in others and numbers of Arab scholars pursuing academic careers abroad.

20. The Dakar declaration adopted a didactic approach in presenting its basic principles, which are founded on the four idea clusters identified for the World Conference: relevance, quality, management and financing, and international co-operation. The Asia and the Pacific declaration and the Arab States kept the same style, and - following the example of Latin America - presented some basic principles which define in a few words the mission of higher education institutions. The document adopted in Palermo starts with a synthetic declaration on the mission of higher education institutions.

21. All the documents highlight the fact that, as the Havana Conference clearly explains, `higher education is an essential instrument for successfully facing the challenges posed by the modern world and for educating citizens who can thus build a more open and fair society, a society based on solidarity, respect for human rights and the shared use of knowledge and information'.

22. The Tokyo declaration summarizes all these positions, which are similar from one region to one other:

- `Higher Education is essential for any country to reach the necessary level of economic and social development and social mobility in order to achieve increased living standards and internal and international harmony and peace based on democracy, tolerance and mutual respect. At the end of the century, we reaffirm the aims of higher education, which can be summarized as follows: to educate responsible and committed citizens, to provide highly trained professionals to meet the needs of industry, government and the professions; to provide expertise to assist in economic and social development, and in scientific and technological research; to help, conserve and disseminate national and regional cultures, drawing on the contributions from each generation; to help protect values by addressing moral and ethical issues; and to provide critical and detached perspectives to assist in the discussions of strategic options and to contribute to humanistic renewal'.

23. The Beirut Conference declared higher education essential for any country to achieve sustainable and global development and also essential for the enhancement of citizens' participation in public life, for social mobility, and for the achievement of harmony, justice, and comprehensive peace, at both internal and international levels, on the basis of the respect of human rights, active participation of citizens, and mutual respect.

24. The Palermo document makes a statement in which the basic principles regarding the mission of higher education institutions are synthesized this way:

- "No chain being stronger than it weakest link, higher education should be a strong part of a strong educational system, as well as play a key role in opening new futures by contributing, in close collaboration with other partners, to the innovation chain. Similarly, higher education institutions have a key role to play in European society by contributing to equitable and sustainable development and to the culture of peace. They should act critically and objectively on the basis of rigour and merit, actively promoting intellectual and moral solidarity by serving individual needs. In a world of in-depth transformations, higher education institutions are expected to act responsibly and responsively. They are to foresee, anticipate and influence changes in all quarters of society, and be prepared and able to differentiate and to adapt accordingly".

25. The Dakar, Tokyo and Beirut Conferences define what is relevance, a definition which fits what has already appeared in UNESCO's Policy Paper for Change and Development in Higher Education : 'Relevance is considered particularly in terms of the role of higher education as a system and of each of its institutions towards society, as well as in terms of the latter's expectations with regard to higher education. It must thus include matters like democratization of access and broader opportunities for participation in higher education during various stages of life, links to the world of work and the responsibilities of higher education towards the education system as a whole. No less important is participation by the higher education community in the search for solutions to pressing human problems such as population, environment, peace and international understanding, democracy and human rights'.

26. The Latin America and Caribbean Conference urges institutions to respond to the need for sustainable human development by establishing a social consensus. The Dakar Conference emphasizes actions for ensuring a culture of peace and sustainable human development. In the Palermo document, one can read the following passage about European cultural values: 'Higher education institutions have a key role to play, not only as centres of, but also as incubators of cultural diversity, multi-racial harmony and understanding. This means they have a particularly important role to play in creating a civil society and in preparing young people for shaping and living in a democratic society, a place where higher education plays an active role in public debate on ethical and policy questions'. The Arab States Conference put emphasis on safeguarding cultural diversity and on the fact that `every effort should be made to protect and promote the strengths of the Arab and Islamic culture and civilization as part of the major intellectual cultures and civilizations in the world'.

27. The Tokyo Conference states that 'academic freedom and responsible institutional autonomy, particularly in the core academic functions, are crucial for the achievement of the goal of relevance'. The importance of autonomy is also mentioned by the Latin America and Caribbean Conference: `Knowledge is a social asset that can only be generated, transmitted, criticized and recreated for the benefit of society, in plural and free institutions that have a full autonomy and academic freedom'. This declaration includes the idea that they `must also have a clear awareness of their responsibility and a will to be of service that cannot be turned down'. The Palermo document also states that `higher education institutions should be entrusted with a greater institutional autonomy, thus enhancing their capacity for change, for acting responsibly, effectively and entrepreneurially as learning organizations, while making them accountable in terms of performance'. For Dakar, autonomy is a condition for reaching quality. The Beirut Conference declared that `freedom of movement of students and access to academic institutions across Arab States frontiers will strengthen the Arab cultural development and contribute efficiently to Arab integration in higher education'.

28. The Tokyo declaration expresses concern about globalization and internationalization. It says that `these concepts should not lead to dominance or new forms of imperialism by major cultures and value systems from outside the region'. With a similar approach, the Arab States Conference `while recognizing that globalization is a trend that could not be ignored nor avoided', insists that `it should not lead to dominance of some cultures and value systems on some others, nor to the emergence of new forms of hegemony'.

29. The Tokyo declaration shows the need of the involvement in decision-making by all key stakeholders, and when treating inter-university co-operation, mentions the need to involve Parliaments, the media and governmental and non-governmental organizations. The Arab Conference has a similar approach mentioning the students, the productive and service sectors, alongside representatives of governmental agencies.

30. The importance of the concept of lifelong learning is highlighted by the Tokyo Conference as a means of increasing access for groups currently under-represented. Distance education and open learning can contribute to reaching this objective. The same argument is offered by Latin America and the Caribbean: `the nature itself of contemporary knowledge -in a process of constant renewal and most sudden and dramatic growth- fully agrees with the current notion of permanent education'. In this declaration, in the part concerning `quality', we can also read that the institutions of higher education will have to take up -without any further delays- the paradigm of permanent education and that `they will have to turn into pertinent centres for facilitating professionals to be up to date, duly retrained and ready to change careers'.

31. The Arab States Conference declared that `the concept of lifelong learning is of utmost importance', that `determined efforts are necessary to further increase access to higher education to all groups of society' and added that: `in rapidly changing economies, the labour market will constantly require new and various skills. Hence, mechanisms must be developed at higher education level to allow workforce in all fields to upgrade their skills and develop new competencies at regular intervals throughout their lives'. The idea of lifelong education appears also in the Palermo document.

32. The idea that higher education should participate in the improvement of the whole education system appears in the definitions of relevance in the Tokyo and Dakar declarations, and is mentioned in the Arab States declaration. In the Latin America and Caribbean declaration the contributions are expressed in a direct way. It says that `most concrete contributions can be made a reality via: training teachers, transforming students into active agents of their training; promoting socio-educational research into such problems as early school drop-outs and students' repeating courses; and ensuring its contribution to the design of State policies in the field of education'. The Beirut declaration adds that `Arab States should devote determined efforts to improve general education as well as to ensure that graduates of this level of education master the essential competencies needed for life, including those necessary for the pursuit of higher education endeavour. Higher education institutions should actively participate in the efforts leading to the improvement of pre-university education'.

33. The document adopted in Palermo concentrates its conceptual analysis regarding relevance on the links with the world of work, in particular with industry. A principle is established at the outset: `In a labour market which is dynamic and heterogeneous, higher education institutions should not base their long-term orientations on labour market or manpower planning, but on social demand', which requires that students gain new skills, (such as learning to be entrepreneurial). On this last point, the Havana declaration states that `higher education must implement pedagogical methods based on knowledge, in order to train graduates that learn how to learn and how to undertake; in this way, they will be better prepared to generate their own jobs'. The Arab States document recommends `reciprocal harmonization with the world of work' and states that `higher education must take a leading role in the evolution of the world of work to better meet sustainable development requirements'.

34. The Palermo document proposes `more institutional diversification for new policies of access to higher education and for a structured development of lifelong learning', and `flexibility with regard to access, content, breadth, depth and duration of programmes, means of delivery, examination and validation'. Finally, it states that `a constructive partnership between government, business and industry, and higher education institutions is a critical element in the implementation of an Agenda for Change in higher education. The role of government is expected to shift from bureaucratic control to policy steering, stable funding formulas, quality monitoring, project-based investment and providing a cushion against the wider excesses of the demands of the free market'.

35. The Arab Conference deals with the issue of diversification and suggests that `diversification of institutions and programmes can also play a significant role on alleviating the strains put on traditional institutions by the ever growing social demand for higher education due to rapid growth rate of population and appeal of higher education for large sectors of society'. It makes a special mention of the need for `specific national and institutional plans of action in order to increase the participation in higher education of disadvantaged groups at all levels and in all disciplines, particularly females and the citizens under strenuous conditions due to occupation or blockade. They should work in co-operation with regional and international agencies in order to provide learning opportunities to deprived students and to permit them enrolment in higher education institutions within their countries'.

36. The Dakar, the Tokyo and Beirut declarations present definitions of quality, which also fit with the concepts presented in UNESCO's Policy Paper for Change and Development in Higher Education. One basic assumption is that quality is linked to relevance (in other words, quality has no meaning without relevance as stated in the Arab States declaration) and that `quality is a multidimensional concept which depends to a large extent on the contextual setting of a given system, institutional mission, or conditions and standards within a given discipline'.

37. One consequence, as the Tokyo declaration mentions, is that it is not possible to arrive at one set of quality standards applicable to all countries, and against which institutions can be assessed. Quality embraces all the main functions and activities of higher education: teaching and academic programmes, research and scholarship, staffing, students, infrastructure, community services and the academic environment. The Arab States declaration considers that `all higher education systems and institutions should give a high priority to ensuring the quality of programmes, teaching and outcomes. Structures, procedures and standards for quality assurance should be developed at the regional and national levels commensurate with international guidelines while providing for variety according to the specificities of each country, institution or programme'.

38. The concept of accountability is closely allied with quality (Tokyo) and continuous and permanent assessment is necessary to reach this objective (Tokyo). Tokyo also considers that self evaluation and external review are vital components of any well developed quality assurance system.

39. The Dakar declaration includes the idea that quality `entails the operationalization of the envisaged outcomes (a clear definition of goals and objectives), of the inputs the institutions will work with (thus a review of admissions criteria) and the processes and procedures for working with the inputs (the way the management system coordinates structures, resources and the institutional culture to obtain the required products)'. The Arab States Conference states that `quality mechanisms are implemented through continuous assessments and comparisons between observed and intended processes and constant search for the sources of dysfunctions to correct them'.

40. The Palermo document treats the problem of research, which can also be considered as necessary for reaching quality, stating that:

41. The Beirut Conference considers that `access to scientific knowledge is an essential element of cultural and intellectual understanding and the further development of higher education institutions'.

42. The Dakar and Tokyo declarations present a description of what these terms mean and say they are complementary. The Beirut Conference says that `management and finance cover, on one hand, issues related to internal management of institutions, funding and resources, and, on the other hand, the relations of higher education institutions with the State, and other stakeholders'. For Tokyo, `management and finance cover both internal institutional management, funding and resource issues, as well as relations of higher education institutions with the State and national planning and co-ordination'. The Palermo document states that `in view of the common assumptions on trends affecting future university development in Europe, the growing systematisation of institutional management is a welcome development'.

43. The Dakar and Tokyo declarations urge the institutions to adopt forward-looking management practices which respond to the needs of the environment, as specified in their missions. In addition, Dakar suggests that the institutions could undertake an in-depth analysis on its mission and translate this into product, process and quality indicators.

44. The problem of funding is treated as a principle and the Asia declaration states that `despite the general trend towards diversified sources of funding, public support for higher education and research remains essential to ensure achievement of educational and social missions' and that `both institutions and national agencies can develop appropriate strategies to strengthen management, planning and policy analysis capacities'. Havana, for its part, states that `Public support for higher education is still indispensable. The challenges faced by higher education are also challenges for society as a whole. They include governments, the production sector, the labour world, organized civil society, academic associations, along with regional and international organizations that are responsible for training, research, development or financing programmes'. The Beirut Conference says that `higher education institutions need appropriate financial and human resources to achieve higher quality of education' and that `despite, the general trend towards diversifying sources of funding, governmental support for higher education and research remains essential to ensure achievement of educational and social missions of educational institutions. Furthermore, with the extension of private investment in higher education, appropriate mechanisms of accreditation and monitoring should be developed to guarantee access, equity, quality and the right of students'.

45. The Tokyo and Havana declarations call attention to the importance of modern information and communication technology. Havana says: `It is absolutely necessary to introduce a solid culture of information in the higher education systems of the region. The adequate combination of information and communication redefines the need for up-to-date pedagogical practices at the university level'. The Tokyo declaration considers that this technology provides considerable promise to enhance teaching and learning in higher education both on campus and in distance education. It can help disabled students who tend to be denied access to traditional institutions, provide access to technical and scholarly information resources, and facilitate communication among researchers and teachers through the establishment and enhancement of networks of institutions and scholars.

46. The Beirut Conference treated in details of the problem of modern information and communication technology, saying in particular that :

- `Modern information and communication technologies' (ICT) are already making radical changes in methods of teaching and learning in higher education for both on-campus and distance education students. It has the potential to make positive impact on quality, relevance, access and cost of higher education,( if direct access to technical and cultural information resources is provided) , and rapid communication among teachers and researchers is facilitated. These technologies allow for the establishment of networks between institutions and scholars and enhance their development and efficiency. They also contribute in the provision of courses and degree-awarding programmes through multiple and advanced means, thus breaking through the traditional barriers of space and time. The virtual capacity of these developments in teaching tools is almost limitless for improving distance, open and life-long learning, if adequate conditions are ensured'.

- `Governments of Arab States should ensure that informatics and communication network infrastructure, personal computer facilities, and human resources training, now a globally recognized prerequisite for the normal functioning of higher education institutions and research centres, are adequately provided. Regional and international co-operation and development organizations are called upon to allocate technical and financial resources to support the development in the Arab States'.

47. The Tokyo declaration introduces the idea of the virtual university, a notion which is being actively explored in the region but which will require considerable investment in hardware and software. This idea was also present in the action plan of the Dakar Conference.

48. The first Regional Conference, in Havana, underlined that `both the transfer and the exchange of experiences between higher education institutions -key elements of the UNITWIN/UNESCO Chairs Programme- are indispensable for promoting knowledge and ensuring that the latter is applied to encourage development'.

50. The Tokyo declaration also says that `regional co-operation among the countries of the region, especially in higher education, can make significant contributions in addressing major policy problems, strengthening national capacity in economic and social development and facilitating the sharing of important expertise and experience. Regional co-operation is especially desirable in view of the diversity of the region and the potential for dynamic collaboration'. The Beirut Conference says that `co-operation at the national, regional and international levels through advanced methods and mechanisms fit for the XXIst Century is essential for higher education institutions in order for them to adequately fulfil the missions entrusted to them'. It also says that co-operation `through academic exchanges, twinning and networking arrangements, can make significant contributions in addressing major higher education policy matters, and facilitating the sharing of pioneering, expertise and experience'.

51. The reinforcement of regional integration is an objective to be reached according to the first three Regional Conferences (Havana, Dakar and Tokyo). `Higher education institutions of our region must instill in their graduates the awareness that they really belong to the community of Latin American and Caribbean nations. Hence they must promote processes aimed at regional integration. Furthermore, cultural and educational integration should be the bases for political and economic integration. Faced with the formation of new economic spaces within the current framework of globalization and regionalization, higher education institutions must address their studies of Latin American integration in the light of their economic, social, cultural, ecological and political aspects, among others. This will be their main task and they should address the problems with an interdisciplinary approach, says the Havana Conference. Moreover, the Tokyo declaration states that `higher education institutions should explore opportunities to promote processes aiming at regional integration without losing diversity'. The Dakar Conference follows the same reasoning when it says that `the organization of African institutions into cooperative networks, using appropriate products of new technologies, should be a major priority area'. The Beirut Conference reminds that `co-operation is made easier in view of the common linguistic and cultural heritage of the Arab States' and that `this co-operation should be reinforced especially at graduate studies, scientific research programmes, institutional research and development'.

52. The Palermo document addresses this matter, saying that `higher education institutions are as much concerned with the creation as with the transmission of cultural values' and that, `although it is misleading to speak of `European' values per se, in the specific European context, and in terms of the European university tradition, a framework does exist in terms of cultural unity through diversity: this means agreeing to disagree in order to pursue open, critical and constructive dialogue'. The Beirut Conference adds that `with the increased emergence of digitalization and the increasing reliance on communication technologies as a means of storage and transfer of scholarly information, open and affordable access to communication networks becomes an important and indispensable element of quality of higher education institutions and programmes'.

53. The Tokyo declaration introduces the notion that `the steady advance of information and communication technologies must facilitate inter-university co-operation'. According to the Havana Conference, `Inter-university co-operation can be further facilitated by the constant progress evidenced in the field of information and communication technologies'. The Dakar declaration mentions that `we would expect that the organization of African institutions into cooperative networks, using appropriate products of new technologies, should be a major priority area'.

54. In the plans of action adopted, all conferences mention the conventions on the recognition of studies, degrees and diplomas, but in the Havana declaration, participants said that `founded on the Regional Convention and the International Recommendation on the Recognition of Studies, Degrees and Diplomas, there is a need to encourage academic and professional mobility. The purpose is no other than that of favouring the process of economic, educational, political and cultural integration of the region'.

55. Finally, the Dakar declaration suggests the need for an overall strategic plan for interuniversity co-operation that would specify priorities, deadlines and the constraints arising from the relationships among various projects or components of projects. It appeals to higher education stakeholders, saying that `co-operation projects have often been mere juxtapositions of disparate efforts'.

56. The action plans of four Regional Conferences (Havana, Dakar, Tokyo and Beirut) have a similar structure, in that they basically follow the thematic clusters identified by the Steering Committee of the Advisory Group on Higher Education: relevance, quality, management and financing, and interuniversity co-operation, (in Havana, the issue of new communication technologies was added). The Palermo document, after describing the results of the conceptual debates on each point of the agenda (Teaching and Learning, Research, World of Work, Transmission of Europe's Cultural Values, and Organizational Change and Development), proposed elements for `required action', which could be assimilated into a plan of action.

57. In spite of the similarity of approaches, the results are heterogeneous. The Havana Conference, which opened the road to the others, decided to delegate to CRESALC (the Regional Centre for Higher Education in Latin America and the Caribbean) the task of finalizing a more concrete plan of action. This was carried out by CRESALC jointly with several IGOs and NGOs and a set of very well structured lines of action were defined in a new document. The Dakar, Tokyo and Beirut plans of action are coherent, presenting concrete proposals that in many cases are also reinforced by principles. The Palermo document, in the parts concerning the `required action', is frequently general and sometimes vague, but opens the way to the elaboration of concrete actions.

58. For the World Conference, these plans and documents furnish a very rich input. For UNESCO, the new input offers concrete proposals for the implementation of its programme on higher education and new opportunities for partnership with other organizations.

59. The documents presenting proposals for action can be divided into two parts:

i) Support to higher education

60. The action plans of the first three Regional Conferences (Havana, Dakar and Tokyo) and of Beirut are based, as is clearly stated in the Tokyo declaration, on the principles, observations and recommendations set out in the Declarations approved by the Regional Conferences. Clear statements are made that strong support is needed for the renewal of the systems of higher education through new policies and new paradigms of higher education. These, as stated at the Tokyo Conference, are founded on such concepts as sustainable development, lifelong education, globalization of knowledge, continuity of the reform process, anticipatory capacity, transparency and accountability, involvement of Parliaments and of the media, and preservation of cultural identity and values.

The Beirut Conference underlined the role of higher education with regard to major social problems, recommending that higher education institutions should contribute to the development of students' personal awareness, commitment and capacity to cope with the major social issues facing humankind. `All higher education study programmes should include courses dealing with these issues'.

ii) Joint action plans

61. The Tokyo Conference makes a second general statement which seems implicit also in the statements from Havana and Dakar. It says:

- `joint action plans must be established in order to prevent duplicate efforts, to optimize efficiency and to ensure the further development of higher education through the enhanced mobilization of additional resources, by international and regional organizations dealing with interuniversity co-operation and strengthening of global networks, by all regional, sub-regional and national associations of universities and higher education institutions, by the representatives of private and public universities, by networks of institutions for research and teaching, as well as by development organizations and agencies, governmental and non-governmental organizations. The mass media of the region should be called on to support these initiatives'.

The Beirut Conference made a similar statement adding that among the organizations responsible for this mobilization in the Arab region, mention should be made of concerned agencies active in the region, in particular, ALECSO, ISESCO, ABEGS, the Association of Arab Universities, the Arab Federation of Councils for Scientific Research and the Arab Federation for Technical Education, which `could play an important role in strengthening existing networks and in building new regional networks leading to the solution of pressing problems of higher education and to the societies of the Arab States. The Association of Arab Universities, and other cross-regional and international organizations could also play a role in finding solutions to problems of common interest. Partnerships with world organizations and institutions are particularly sought after. The mass media should also be called on to support these initiatives'.

62. The Tokyo Conference added one specific Asian and regional element to this statement, saying that `the United Nations University and, in particular, the Institute of Advanced Studies in Tokyo, should co-operate with higher education institutions of the region in strengthening networks and in building global networks leading to the solution of pressing global problems of human survival and welfare'.

iii) Resources and reforms

63. General recommendations were made in Havana, Dakar, Tokyo and Beirut to Member States (Governments and Parliaments) proposing, in Tokyo's words, the following: `Governments and parliaments must fulfil their commitments to higher education and be accountable for pledges made at regional and world conferences over the past decade with regard to the provision of human and financial resources. This includes, inter alia, the establishment of effective new mechanisms to deal with policy and legislation, appropriate follow-up activities, monitoring and evaluation of progress towards the achievements of stated goals and the promotion of institutional autonomy'. The Havana Conference goes further than the other ones in this matter and requires that measures be taken for `complying with the recommendations made to the countries of the region in the Declaration of Mexico (1979)'. In this respect, countries must increase their budget allocation to education until the latter reaches no less than 7% of the Gross National Product.

64. The need for legal and legislative reforms is stressed by the Havana Conference, which says: `Encouraging the revision and possible reform proposals of the legal and juridical structures ruling higher education, so as to better consider a higher degree of relevance in agreement with the Latin American ideal'.

iv) Observable indicators

65. Recommendations addressed to each higher education institution were approved by the Tokyo Conference and seem also implicit in the Havana and Dakar Conferences. The Tokyo statement says:

- `Each higher education institution must define its mission in harmony with the overall goals of the sector itself, translate this mission into observable indicators and allocate the required resources'.

In the same vein, the Beirut Conference states that the missions `should be translated into well-defined objectives, with allocation of the required resources, and the establishment of concrete mechanisms proper to ensure adequate monitoring and evaluation of progress and achievements based on observable indicators'.

v) Reinforcement of UNESCO's regional programmes

66. The reinforcement of higher education progress in the region was requested in the regional conferences. In Havana, two recommendations asked for the transformation of CRESALC into an autonomous institution in charge of higher education in Latin America and the Caribbean. The Dakar declaration asks for the reinforcement of the higher education unit of the Regional Office of UNESCO in Dakar (BREDA). The Tokyo plan of action requests UNESCO to reinforce its higher education unit at its Bangkok office, which should work in conjunction with other international governmental and non-governmental organizations active in the field of higher education in the region. The Beirut Conference considered that `UNESCO, through the joint efforts of Headquarters, Regional Offices, and its centres, institutes or units specialized in higher education in other regions, in co-operation with other UN agencies such as UNDP and the Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia (ESCWA), Higher Education NGOs, and UNESCO Chairs and networks, must reinforce its programme of higher education in the Arab States'. The reinforcement of the Unit for Higher Education in Beirut Office was requested as the reinforcement of current programmes of Cairo office.

67. In summary, these regional units specialized in higher education are being asked to assume the following tasks :

vi) Studies on priorities

68. The Dakar Plan of Action suggests that the Association of African Universities, with the support of UNESCO, carry out a series of case studies on Africa's priorities, in which higher education institutions would play an important role. The Tokyo Declaration requests UNESCO to undertake the same tasks in co-operation with other intergovernmental and non-governmental organizations specialized in higher education.

69. The Beirut Plan presents a list of subjects or themes for studies, projects and researches to be undertaken in the region. The list of studies could include, inter alia, strategic management of planning, interaction among all levels of education, the revision of programmes and training, strategies to enhance the participation of women in higher education and in decision-making bodies, the development of distance education schemes and the type of leadership to be promoted, quality assurance, common understanding as regards to the role, functions and functioning of higher education private institutions, the elaboration of programmes aiming at establishing close links between social problems and concerns and higher education institutions. The Dakar Plan of Action also requests studies concerning various security problems (such as poverty, displaced populations, war...). In Palermo, one group requested for studies on the way the transfer of knowledge takes place on the North-South axis. The intention was to analyze the impact of the system known as `franchising'.

i) Principles and values

70. The conferences in Havana, Dakar and Tokyo presented a series of recommendations concerning the missions of higher education institutions and their relations with the major social problems of humankind.

71. The Palermo document proposes that the cultural values, in both European and global contexts,`should permeate all higher education curricula, their transmission, especially as far as ethical considerations are concerned, should not be limited to special courses. Special emphasis should be placed on language training, multi-disciplinarity, independent and critical learning associated with team-work. With the help of higher education institutions, this process should start in primary and secondary education'. On values, the Havana Conference asks that the most significant ones be incorporated, including: freedom, human rights, social and ethical responsibility and solidarity.

72. The African Conference recommends that `Member States develop educational programmes capable of meeting the challenges of sweeping societal changes and the principal challenges which Africa is bound to face in the immediate future'. It also recommends that Member States should `be convinced that investment in higher education is worthwhile, as long as the institutions are oriented to meet the needs of society'.

73. The Tokyo Conference suggests that higher education institutions:

74. The Havana Conference includes a long list of other recommendations, which are summarized below :

- that advanced education is universal;

75. The Dakar Conference also presents a series of proposals oriented to specific actions by the higher education institutions. In brief:

ii) Responsibility towards other educational levels

76. Consistent with their Declarations, the Havana, Tokyo and Beirut Plans of Action make proposals concerning the responsibility of higher education towards other education levels.

77. The Havana Plan wishes `to integrate higher education institutions with other levels of education, so as to make up a well-organized system where these institutions should take up a proactive behaviour aimed at identifying failures. Their contribution could be evidenced in applied research and their participation in the initial training of teachers, as well as in the improvement and updating of the qualified staff and in aiding in the design of models of study programmes'. The Havana Conference also suggests organizing higher education so as to fulfil the principle of lifelong education and to be in charge of training workers, graduates and their own teaching cadres, by means of formal and non-formal education plans.

78. The Tokyo Conference follows the same line and mentions the tasks of `teacher training, socio-economic research on such education variables as school retention and repetition, appropriate pedagogies, and educational policy alternatives, thereby improving education at all levels'.

79. The Plan of Action of the Arab States Conference synthesizes the proposals in this field, saying that`higher education in the region should actively participate: a) in the improvement of the quality of general education, b) in the renovation of teacher and other educational personnel training schemes aiming at more profesionalization, c) in conducting research on social and educational variables that may reduce school failure and dropout, and in recommending appropriate educational approaches and policy alternatives etc., d) in the development, in close continuous and interactive partnership with education authorities and institutions, of activity programmes and direct services to the education community aiming at helping the education system reach the objectives of education for all as set in Jomtien Conference (1990). Networks and Chairs in educational sciences should be created and reinforced as part of the strategy to achieve these ends'.

iii) Regional integration

80. The Tokyo Conference urges higher education institutions to promote processes aimed at regional integration. Furthermore, cultural and educational integration should be the basis for political and economic integration. The Tokyo Conference also suggests that `countries and institutions must stimulate, through the creation of networks, the development of regional postgraduate studies'.

81. On the other hand, the Havana Conference insists on the need for higher education institutions to be actively present in the processes of regional integration, so as to render possible those projects that are aimed at improving the quality of living and well-being of Latin-American and the Caribbean society.

82. Finally, the Beirut Conference also recommended the promotion of processes aiming at Arab integration, `starting at the cultural and educational levels, with the view to attain economic and political integration'. It was suggested that `the adoption of common standards for quality assessment and recognition of educational and professional qualification, constitutes a step forward towards such integration, as well as the adoption of common core study programmes in the various professional fields'. The idea of integration appears later in other sections, in particular, in the proposals for co-operation.

iv) Access

83. The Tokyo Plan of Action and the Havana Conference try to present concrete proposals concerning improvement of access. The Havana Conference requests guaranteeing `the principle of universal access to higher education and free higher education, in order to improve equity and ensure an adequate quality and effectiveness of studies'.

84. The Tokyo Conference considers that `Governments must expand and diversify opportunities for every citizen to benefit from higher-level skills, training, knowledge and information which are the qualifications for entry into the world of work'.

85. The Tokyo Conference also requests an increase in participation rates in higher education and asks that appropriate strategies be adopted for increasing the participation of disadvantaged groups, including women, who must be encouraged to undertake higher degrees and enter academic and graduate employment. Similar efforts are also needed to encourage the participation of ethnic minorities.

86. The Dakar Conference, in addition to a strong recommendation concerning the participation of women `in all possible areas' recommends `that measures be taken to double the number of women (students, teachers and decision-makers) in higher education, within the next ten years. Particular attention should be paid to orienting women towards scientific and technological disciplines'.

87. The Beirut Conference recommended that `Arab Governments must expand and diversify opportunities for every citizen to upgrade his or her qualifications'. For this, `appropriated strategies should be elaborated' in particular `for those already involved in the world of work' or for those who drop-out of the education system, `through flexible programmes and schedules, allowing for part-time study and diversified short-qualifying or diploma-granting programmes'.

v) Higher education and the world of work

88. It is in the field of higher education and the world of work that proposals are most numerous. This results from the importance of the subject - unemployment is a reality in many parts of the world, including the richest countries in Europe - and relations with the world of work are at the centre of several reforms in higher education all over the world. The Palermo Conference gave top priority to this subject.

89. However, several proposals are in fact situated at the level of principles and could also be included in the declarations of the Conferences. A trend observed in all continents is the strong will to break down the barriers which still exist between academic institutions and the world of work.

90. In general, the narrow view of seeing the world of work as being limited to the immediate needs of enterprises was not accepted. A consensus seems to exist that these links should be independent of short-term business interests (Tokyo), that missions should be aligned with national priority areas (Dakar Conference), that there is a need to render the reform of study programmes more dynamic, and that introducing flexible new mechanisms in advance might help to satisfy the needs and requirements of the labour sector (Havana). `Higher education institutions must help shape the labour market by identifying the needs of the social and economic sectors for new professionales and specialists' (Beirut). The Palermo document says that `higher education institutions should not base their long-term orientations on labour market or manpower planning, but on social demand'.

91. The Tokyo declaration, the third in the series of Regional Conferences, benefitted from an in-depth analysis of this matter in Asia and the Pacific and from the results of the two preceding conferences (Havana and Dakar). In one paragraph, the plan synthesises the main proposals which were also supported later by the Beirut Conference:

`Higher education institutions should promote continuous and interactive partnerships with the productive sector using both reactive and proactive approaches. They must adjust the curriculum to meet the needs of the workplace and ensure that new disciplines and specializations are incorporated into its content. Also, they must help shape the labour market, on the one hand by identifying (independently of conjunctural (short-term) interests of enterprises), new local and regional needs, and on the other hand by designing mechanisms for retraining and career-switching. Curricula should be organized to stimulate the entrepreneurial skills of students. This requires flexible, innovative and interdisciplinary approaches'. Later, the Tokyo Conference also proposes that `pedagogical programmes should be established to encourage students to be more entrepreneurial and initiative-oriented'.

92. The Beirut Conference insists that `in order to facilitate the elaboration of national educational plans and to improve the capacity of higher education institutions to align their policies with national priorities, governments should create or reinforce planning mechanisms to monitor trends and needs of the labour market, in close, continuous, and interactive partnership with higher institutions and the productive and service sectors'.

93. The Havana Conference suggests that institutions of higher education must actively participate `in the formulation and implementation of domestic scientific and technology policies'. This could, of course, allow them to better orient their programmes to face the social needs of the labour market and of society in general.

94. The Dakar Conference, like the Tokyo and the Beirut Conferences, suggests that Member States create `observatories to monitor changes in the labour market in order to facilitate the elaboration of national educational plans and to improve the capacity of higher education institutions to align their policies with national priorities'. For Beirut, the observatories should monitor `short and long term trends of the world of work and the harmonization needed between these trends and higher education policies and programmes'.

95. The Beirut Conference recommends that `special attention should be given to the development of study programmes at the professional level, particularly by introducing or expanding advanced technical colleges, and, at the graduate level, by expanding Master's and PhD programmes, with due regard to designing specialized learning materials in specific disciplines of high quality relevant to societal needs and delivered through new information and communication technologies'.

96. The idea of regionalization appears several times in the Havana Conference, but it is at Dakar and Tokyo that explicit proposals were made. In its plan of action, Tokyo makes a recommendation to higher education institutions - but which is also addressed to UNESCO, UNIDO, UNDP, the World Bank, other regional development banks and funding agencies - to give greater emphasis to diversification through the regionalization of specific disciplines which target specific needs that will generate employment.

97. The Dakar Conference also proposes that institutions of higher education make special efforts to develop scientific and technological programmes to help meet the demands of the accelerated development of new information and communication technologies and notes that this can create virtual universities.

98. The Asia Conference goes into some detail, proposing that:

99. The Palermo document presents a series of recommendations, in which matters of principle are combined with concrete proposals to institutions of higher education and other stakeholders. It recommends:

vi) Autonomy

100. The question of autonomy is mentioned in different parts of the documents adopted by the first three Regional Conferences, but it is the Tokyo Conference that makes a very detailed statement on this subject. In the section of the plan of action devoted to relevance, it says: `Responsible institutional autonomy should be stimulated in the region. This principle upholds the freedom to select staff and students, to determine the conditions under which they remain in the university and select research topics. Freedom to determine the curriculum and degree standards and to allocate funds (within the amount available) across different categories of expenditure are other aspects to be respected. At the same time, institutional autonomy should be accompanied by a high level of responsibility and accountability'. This proposal correlates to the part of the declaration of the Tokyo Conference where it says that `academic freedom and responsible institutional autonomy, particularly in the core academic functions, are crucial for the achievement of the goal of relevance'.

101. The Dakar Conference mentions autonomy in its plan of action, recommending that UNESCO calls on `Member States to improve the living and working conditions and emoluments of academics and, more importantly, to guarantee the autonomy of higher education'. The Dakar Conference also says that `to become more responsive to the needs of society and in order to acquire greater financial autonomy, we recommend that higher education institutions create structures for the development and management of consultancy activities, which are an essential part of their missions. For this to happen, higher education institutions should develop an entrepreneurial spirit as a means of strengthening their service functions which are in themselves complementary to their teaching and research functions'.

102. The Beirut Conference, in its section on the part concerning Management and Financing, states that `autonomy of higher education institutions of the Arab States should be fostered. This includes, among other things, the freedom to select staff and students to determine the conditions under which they remain in the institution, to determine the curriculum and degree standards, to allocate resources for different activities, and to select research topics. Institutional autonomy should be accompanied by a high level of responsibility and accountability and the widest possible participation of students, faculty, and administration in decision-making'.

103. Clear and formal support is given by the Africa Conference to the project on the conditions and status of higher education personnel, recently approved by an international committee of intergovernmental experts and examined at the 29th session of the General Conference of UNESCO (Paris, November 1997). Other conferences have also discussed this normative instrument and their comments appear in the other sections.

IV. QUALITY

104. Quality is seen as an objective to be reached in all processes of reform in higher education. The declarations adopted in Havana, Dakar and Tokyo are very strong on this point and insist on the idea that quality be linked to relevance and that it is a multidimensional concept.

105. Some measures are considered important to strengthen quality and proposals are made in several fields:

i) Evaluation, assessment

106. The idea of evaluation, long considered a nightmare for many higher education institutions, has now won approval , and it is difficult to find anyone who is against it. The problem is to define objectives and modalities for implementing the idea and to agree on who should evaluate the universities, internal and external evaluations being part of this discussion.

107. The idea of developing a culture of assessment or evaluation appears in the Havana Plan of Action and is detailed in Dakar and Tokyo. Havana mentions `the need to counteract the danger of dogmatic trends, thus creating a culture of assessment that is based on the objectives and missions of academic institutions that put their bodies under obligation'. It takes a position in favour of `performing a self-analysis of higher education' which is explained as having the purpose of `enabling higher education to further strengthen the commitment it has taken to self-improve, via knowledge and learning'. Havana also proposes the creation of `common parameters for external assessment of the programmes of post-graduate studies, that are internationally accepted' with the collaboration `of experts from different countries for the external assessment process'.

108. The Palermo document says that `given the increased demand for higher education and its democratisation, there is a pressing need to share good practice and ensure academic quality standards by incorporating a culture of quality and the instruments for quality assurance at both systemic and institutional level'.

109. The Dakar Conference urges that each institution `create appropriate structures for evaluating and controlling the quality of its curricula (including the performance of students) in keeping with agreed guidelines' and recommends that `each Member State establish a mechanism for evaluating the quality of higher education institutions, building on existing practices in the region. Such a body would be responsible for evaluating training, research and consultancy activities in the light of institutional missions, national education programmes and the needs of changing times. This should be a control rather than a punitive mechanism, and should use a combination of external and internal evaluation strategies'.

110. The Tokyo Conference proposals are summarized through the affirmation that `each country of the region should establish a mechanism for evaluating the quality of its higher education institutions. Countries must introduce quality assurance methods at both institutional and systemic levels. These may include academic accreditation, academic audits and institutional evaluations, performance funding, review of disciplines and professional areas, qualification frameworks and competency-based approaches to vocational education and training'.

111. The Beirut Conference is pragmatic in its recommendations and also proposes that `each Arab State should establish a mechanism for evaluating the quality of the higher education at the systemic, institutional, programme, personnel, and outcomes levels'. It says that `quality assurance methods may include academic accreditation, institutional evaluation or sector reviews by disciplines and professional areas performance funding, competency-based approaches to professional education and training'. In addition, it is recommended:

a) to put emphasis on the renewal of curricula, continuous assessment of teaching and learning approaches and the adoption of new ones, promotion of interdisciplinary studies, the utilization of Internet;

b) to use forward-looking strategies for the recruitment and training of teaching personnel and implementation of the Recommendation concerning the Status and Conditions of Higher Education Teaching Personnel approved by UNESCO in 1997;

c) to establish of a center for the professional development and the improvement of teaching performance in each higher education institute;

d) to modernizea libraries and provision of scientific equipment;

e) provide each student with course guidance and training in study skills;

f) to strengthen research capacities at higher education institutions, including those aiming at the acquisition, the broadening, and the deepening of knowledge, and the dissemination of its results.

ii) Renewal of curriculum

112. The Tokyo Conference states that `appropriate, and if so required, greater emphasis needs to be placed on the renewal of the curriculum, on new approaches to both classroom and distance education teaching, on interdisciplinary and multi-disciplinary studies and on vocational education programmes as alternatives to traditional university course'.

113. The Dakar Conference proposes that institutions of higher education should be required to establish minimum teaching-learning guidelines for each course model. It says that they should be explicit about `entry and exit behaviours in terms of skills, values and attitudes, the teaching and evaluation methods, all within a specific time frame'.

114. The Tokyo Conference returns to the question of utilization of new technologies, suggesting that `higher education institutions must adopt new approaches for the packaging of information, for course delivery and for rethinking traditional approaches to teaching and learning. Multi-media, CD-ROM, the Internet and interactive video must all be used to promote interaction between students and their lecturers'. It also says that `teachers, professors and technical and administrative staff must be given training that enables them to integrate new information and communication technologies (NICTs) into their teaching programmes, and to examine the multiplier effect with regard to their use'.

115. The Palermo document considers that the shift from teaching to learning implies, among other things, `a new approach to curriculum development taking into account multi and interdisciplinarity, flexibility of choice but in a coherent system which allows for modularization, credit and transfer, the validation of work experience and the organization of the academic year in semesters both at national and international level'. For Palermo, this shift implies also `self-managed learning, a coaching role for the teacher, professional support services, investment in new delivery and quality assurance mechanisms especially in off-campus operations, which leads to a new definition of scholarship that balances discovery and transmission as well as the integration and application of knowledge'.

iii) Pedagogical training

116. In the 1980s, UNESCO developed a programme to stimulate the action of organizations and institutional networks dealing with pedagogical training in several regions. The need for action in this field appears everywhere.

117. The Havana Conference starts by showing the need for `pedagogically training the teachers of the region and, in general terms, promoting their professional, scientific and pedagogical self-improvement'. The Tokyo Conference says that `each higher education institution should establish a teaching and learning resource unit staffed by qualified personnel and charged with the development of pedagogical skills and other forms of teaching-support activities'. The Dakar Conference expects `that, with assistance from UNESCO and other regional or international organizations, every higher education institution will establish a teaching-learning resource unit staffed by skilled personnel charged with the task of pedagogical skills development and other forms of teaching-support activities'. Finally, in Palermo two working groups proposed the creation or reinforcement of networks in this field. The final document mentions `the paradigmatic shift from teaching to learning', and requires `the establishment of a European Centre for Teaching and Learning to act as an observatory of good practices and innovation, bringing together higher education institutions and their stakeholders at local, national and international level'.

iv) Staff development

118. The Tokyo Conference urges governments and institutions of higher education to adopt `appropriate strategies for the recruitment of staff for their further professional development and for the recognition of their achievements. Governments, Parliaments and institutions of higher education should pay particular attention to the draft Recommendation concerning the Status and Condition of Higher Education Teaching Personnel, approved recently by a governmental experts meeting, which will be submitted to the General Conference of UNESCO in November 1997'. This normative instrument is also mentioned by the Beirut Conference.

119. The Dakar Conference makes a similar recommendation concerning this draft normative instrument in the part devoted to relevance. This normative instrument was discussed in Palermo in one working group and at the plenary. The final document states that `a crucial lever for change is a creative and well-defined personnel policy which opens up teaching as a career, supported by appropriate staff development programmes'.

v) Networks

120. The use of twinning arrangements and networks in several fields for improving the quality of higher education was recommended by practically all Regional Conferences:

vii) Development of research

121. The Havana Conference proposes `fostering research on higher education, including the creation of UNESCO Chairs'.

122. The Palermo document makes a series of suggestions to improve quality through the development of research:

123. Other proposals concern the improvement of quality:

i) Instruments for improving quality and relevance

124. Management and financing constitute an important issue on all continents. This is the reason why the Steering Committee of the Advisory Group for Higher Education in UNESCO proposed to treat the subject as an independent cluster from the basic three: relevance, quality and interuniversity co-operation. Here management can be seen as an instrument for improving relevance and quality. Funding is an important element, and the debate becomes very intense on issues related to state responsibility, privatization etc. Another theme analyzed concerns the utilization of new information and communication technologies for higher education. This theme cuts across all clusters.

ii) Public support is essential

125. A consensus exists that, in spite of the need for the participation of all stakeholders in the search for solutions to the funding of higher education, public support for higher education remains essential to the development of higher education institutions and systems.

126. The Dakar Conference summarizes the matter as follows: `Member States should guarantee equal rights to higher education based on ability and aptitude (i.e. merit). Member States should take principal responsibility for funding higher education. However, since it will be difficult for Member States to bear the entire financial burden, additional sources should be sought using the political and administrative mechanisms of each state, whose sovereignty should be respected. We strongly advise that the economic conditions of families be taken into consideration, and that the only criteria for access or non-access should be the merit'.

127. Looking at institutions, the Dakar Conference reminds us that, `despite the prevailing financial crisis, the management of higher education institutions cannot be reduced to financial management based on purely economic criteria, but takes into account some criteria of equity and of social relevance'.

128. The responsibility of the state is highlighted by the Tokyo declaration, which says that countries of the region must renew the commitments made by them at the Social Development Summit in Copenhagen and at other world bodies to `make new and additional resources available and thus effectively increase their budgets allocated to education in general and to higher education in particular, measured as a significant percentage of their Gross National Product'. A similar recommendation was approved in Beirut.

129. The Havana declaration is more direct and states that `Measures taken in this field must effectively be aimed at complying with the recommendations made to the countries of the region in the Declaration of Mexico (1979)'. In this respect, countries must increase the budget allocated to education until the latter reaches no less than 7% of the Gross National Product.

iii) Diversification of funding sources

130. The Palermo document does not directly mention the state's responsibility but goes immediately to the problem of diversification of funding sources, saying that this `should be actively sought'. The diversification of funding is mentioned in all the other regional conferences, while insisting on the main responsibility of the State. The Tokyo Conference summerizes this whole matter saying:

`Governments must formulate national action plans to enhance both access to and the relevance and quality of higher education institutions. As a consequence, institutional management should improve. The concept of higher education as a public asset implies that its appraisal cannot be restricted to economic and quantitative indicators alone. These plans must foresee a diversification of funding sources through, in particular, the encouragement of various income-generating activities, such as contract research, a broad range of academic and cultural services, short-term courses and, if so appropriate, the operation of scientific and technology enterprises. Public support to Higher Education remains essential to ensure its educational, social and institutional missions. Therefore the state should take the main responsibility for funding this sector. But, since the challenges for higher education concern society as a whole, the solution to this problem must involve not only the state but all stakeholders - students, parents, the public and private sectors, local and national communities, authorities and academic associations, as well as regional and international organizations'.

131. The Havana Conference is very emphatic about the responsibility of the States, insisting that the principle of universal access to higher education and free higher education should be ensured. `Governments must guarantee that the right to education is fulfilled. Consequently, they must take up the responsibility for financing education, within the framework of the conditions and demands that are typical of each educational system'. It adds that `the public financing policy must go in hand with supplementary government initiatives, namely: credits and scholarships for the students, as well as the creation of financial strategies which increase the resources that go to the higher education system'.

132. The Beirut Conference reaffirmed that `even though the state should remain the main party responsible for funding higher education, diversification of funding sources, in particular through cost recovery of extra-academic activities, and encouragement of various income-generating activities, such as contract research, cultural and academic services, short-term courses, etc...should be actively sought'.

133. Other points raised by the participants of the Havana Conference were:

- additional funding can be forthcoming from the transfer of services, continuing education programmes, co-operation between higher education and industry, between higher education and the service sector, and between higher education and society as a whole;

- the search for financing should never distort the real nature of the institutions of higher education, in particular their responsibility to provide education, to transmit ethical values and encourage those who attend these institutions to fulfil their social responsibilities;

- the burden of the cost of education should not be transferred to the student;

- the state must ensure strategies for reallocating public expenditures, as well as for changing the fiscal legislation, so as to progressively redirect taxes.

134. The participants in the Beirut Conference also raised the following points:

- `in order to ensure high-quality research, it is necessary to adopt adequate systems for public and private support to research undertaken in higher education institutions, as well as to double the existing level of funding".

- `the complementary role of private institutions of higher education must be recognized. Governments should provide a legal framework to regulate private higher education institutions and develop appropriate mechanisms for accreditation, diploma recognition, and licensing, in addition to setting standards for the quality assurance and adequacy of educational facilities and services'.

iv) Improving management

135. The first three regional conferences (Havana, Dakar and Tokyo) and the last one (Beirut) all made specific recommendations for improving the management of higher education institutions. Havana recommends that `the management of higher education should help the systems and institutions fully and clearly identify the changes that have taken place in their environment, as well as the prevailing historical conditions'. Several technical proposals are made for improving systems.

136. The Dakar Conference insists that `it is important to build the habit of forward-looking management and planning into higher education institutions in Africa'. This means that appropriate training opportunities should be provided for administrators, whether they occupy a permanent or an elected position. It also means that necessary computer databases should be developed as soon as possible to ensure high-quality forward-looking management and planning. The institutions should find either within themselves or through co-operation the necessary skills to create, maintain and develop these data banks.

137. In the same vein, the Asia Conference proposes that `management capacities should be strengthened by, inter alia, the recruitment of new senior staff with specialized expertise, appropriate training and staff development programmes for all line managers (and especially for those in executive positions), the introduction of greater clarity in job descriptions and reporting channels, improved management procedures and the introduction and enhancement of computerized management systems'.

138. The Beirut Conference recommends that `management capacities in higher education should be strengthened by appropriate training and staff development programmes for all managers, especially those in executive positions, the adoption of clear job descriptions and decision-making channels, the improvement of managerial procedures and the introduction of computerized management systems'.

139. The Dakar Conference adds that `each sub-system (faculty, department or other structure) should also take on responsibility for forward-looking management and planning. This means that each unit must clearly define its missions into observable indicators, and allocate the resources available in accordance with the mission and with a clear order of priority. They should also prepare regular activity reports, which should be shared with staff and supervising authorities'.

140. The Beirut Conference proposed the same measure: `Each higher education institution should establish a unit staffed with experienced qualified personnel with the mandate to conduct the necessary studies and research and to propose strategies and actions aiming at the institutional development and the improvement of management. Studies can include, inter alia, such matters as planning and management, evaluation of training and service programmes and the introduction of new ones, the development of distance education schemes, the condition of women and the strategies to enhance their participation at the different levels of the institution. To this end, UNESCO Chairs and Networks could be developed and implemented in the Arab States'.

141. The Beirut Conference recommended also that `governments should consider creating or reinforcing agencies that act as buffers between concerned ministries and higher education institutions and provide advice on such matters as organization, accountability and quality, assurance, allocation of resources, and the administration of grants and financial assistance, with due consideration to the fact that higher education implies that its appraisal cannot be restricted to economic quantitative indicators alone'.

V) Participation of stakeholders (in particular students and women)

142. The Beirut Conference recommends that `opportunities should be given, wherever possible, to government, and the professional and productive sectors to participate in decision-making concerning management and organization of higher education'.

143. The participation of students and staff in decisions is mentioned explicitly, or implicitly, in the debates of the four regional conferences. The Dakar Conference considers that student involvement in decision-making bodies should be given a considerable boost and suggests the organization, at the regional level, of a student forum to help make higher education institutions more effective and to promote sustainable development in the region. Regular meetings under the aegis of the African Association of Universities should be organized for exchanges on problems related to management and funding of institutions of higher education.

144. A similar proposal is made by the Tokyo Conference which proposes at a regional level the creation of an association or forum to mobilize the contribution of student organizations toward making higher education institutions more forceful advocates for the promotion of sustainable development. The Havana Conference requests the integration of students in all tasks dealing with quality in higher education.

145. The Tokyo Conference also suggests that `staff involvement in decision-making bodies should be considerably strengthened'. Concerning students, it says that `appropriate consultation is of great importance'.

146. The participation of women in decisions-making was the object of discussions and debates in all regional conferences. The Palermo document insists that `particular attention should be paid to the promotion of opportunities for women, including in top positions in higher education'. The Dakar Conference is more emphatic, saying that `since women have a major role to play in the development of the Africa region, we request that international organizations, member states and higher education institutions develop well-articulated policies, remove gender inequity in education and more importantly promote the advancement of women in the entire society. This should include measures implemented by the institutions of higher education themselves. We suggest that meaningful affirmative action be taken in all possible directions. Women's associations and networks should be fully supported. A systematic and coherent policy of gender research and case studies should be implemented and their findings widely published and ploughed back into the teaching, management and overall development work of higher education institutions'.

147. The Beirut Conference considering that the `general rate of female enrolment in higher education is close to those observed at the international level', urges that `all Arab States look to increasing this rate'. The participants recommended that the Arab States and their higher education institutions adopt specific national and institutional plans of action in order to increase the participation of women in higher education at all levels and in all disciplines.

148. The Tokyo Declaration mentions the issue of women in the section related to access and to quality where it is suggested that strategies to enhance the participation of women in higher education and in decision-making bodies be developed.

vi) Information and communication technologies

149. The utilization of new communication and information technologies is a theme which appears in all four clusters, in particular in the Beirut Plan of Action. Some Conferences highlighted its importance for relevance and quality, others emphasized the need of co-operation in this field, others preferred to call attention to its use as a tool for better management of institutions that is, as an instrument for reaching the goals of the institutions.

150. The Palermo document, for example, states that `modern information and communication technologies have major implications for the provision of education and training and require a fundamental restructuring of the ways in which teaching and learning objectives are delivered. Higher education institutions have a key role to play in exploiting, for themselves and together with other partners, the potential of innovative information and communication technologies for academic development'.

151. The Havana Conference keeps `new information and communication technologies (NICT)s' as one of the clusters and has a special commission for it. This explains the number of points and proposals made either for relevance and quality, for management or for NICTs as an instrument of co-operation. Here are some of the major proposals:

VI. INTERUNIVERSITY CO-OPERATION

i) Importance of co-operation

152. There is a consensus that no higher education institution can be kept isolated if it wants to play a major role in the development of society. The role of the Regional Conventions on the Recognition of Studies and Diplomas is highlighted in all regions. The creation and development of networks is accepted everywhere as a powerful instrument for developing co-operations and the UNITWIN/UNESCO Chairs programme is mentioned several times as a positive example. The Dakar Conference requests UNESCO to organize in the near future an exchange and evaluation meeting for all existing networks such as the UNITWIN/UNESCO Chairs Programme and UNISPAR.

153. The Tokyo document states that `individual institutions must develop international linkages, such as those for the exchange of staff, students and for academic co-operation. As well, they must support the activities of international organizations and bilateral agreements between countries within the region'.

ii) Priorities for co-operation

154. The Havana Conference defines priority areas for international interuniversity co-operation: the environment and sustainability, the new social players and the participation of ethnic, linguistic, and class minorities as spokespersons and main characters involved in the process of change of higher education.

155. The Dakar Conference also establishes priorities: a research network on the use of new information and communication technologies, a network of teaching-learning resource units, a network of research units in education devoted to priority areas for Africa development, which could be grouped under UNESCO Chairs in Education.

156. The Tokyo Conference, in keeping with its declaration, mentions that `higher education institutions should strengthen their endogenous capacities related to priority issues in the region. In particular, centres of excellence can have a positive impact on the solution of major social problems related to environment and sustainable development, on research in higher education institutions, on education research in general, on institutional leadership, staff development and teacher training, on the diffusion of new communication and information technologies, on human rights and democracy, on technology transfer, on patents and intellectual property and on the protection of cultural heritage, as well as on the strengthening of education for all and of social development in general'.

157. The Beirut Conference recommends that `institutions should strengthen their endogenous and co-operative capacities related to priority issues in the Arab States. Centres of excellence can have a positive impact on the solution of major social problems related to the environment, demographic growth, sustainable development, research on higher education, educational research, institutional management, teaching staff professional development, the arabization of higher education, provision of communication technologies, technology transfer, the protection of cultural heritage etc.'. The establishment of an Arab Open University and regional co-operation projects in the field of teaching personnel and their professional development and the establishment of the Arab University for Graduate Studies and Scientific Research were also mentioned.

158. The Palermo Conference states that `support mechanisms at national and international levels to stimulate and sustain research groups in less developed systems of higher education should be strengthened in order to support institutional development rather than exacerbating the brain drain phenomena'.

159. The Havana, Dakar and Tokyo Conferences make reference to special situations and to minority groups in each region.

160. In Havana, a proposal mentions that Portuguese also be `considered an official language in the coming Latin America and Caribbean meetings on international co-operation'.

161. The Dakar Conference states that `to respect the right to cultural diversity, we would urge UNESCO to assist in the creation of a network of lusophone institutions of higher education and to intensify its support to the activities of Associations of Portuguese and Spanish speaking universities as other means of reinforcing South-South co-operation. The development of graduate programmes in Portuguese-speaking countries should be supported. Other regional networks could contribute their expertise in this area'.

162. In Asia, the recommendations are oriented towards small countries. Attempts should be made - under AUAP supervision - to develop a general pool of programmes of study for the Asia and the Pacific region. These would develop under the leadership of the region's distance education and multi-media education networks.

163. Another recommendation mentions that `within their capacity, UNESCO and other interregional governmental and non-governmental organizations should respond to the requests to provide technical assistance to smaller and poorer countries in the region, in particular those of island nations, and to collaborate with them in the preparation of joint plans of action with a view to the development of higher education institutions'.

164. In the Arab States, one recommendation mentioned that `the exchange of knowledge and experience between higher education institutions in the Arab States must be carried out in a spirit of solidarity and be the basis for co-operation agreements between them. Within their capacity, UNESCO and other international and regional governmental and non-governmental organizations should respond to the request to provide technical assistance to smaller and poor countries'.

165. In Beirut, a special recommendation concerned Palestine. `A special effort must be undertaken to re-build the higher education system in Palestine and in occupied territories, to remove the barriers caused by the military occupation that prevent the free movement of students and faculty members, and that hinder access to research and study. Concerned parties should endeavour to stop all measures that threaten the safety and security of students and staff of institutions of higher education. At the same time, appropriate pressures must be exercised to remove obstacles to the free exchange of students and academic between Palestine and the Arab States. Finally, Arab institutions of higher education are urged to continue their policies supporting access of qualified Palestinian students to higher education'.

166. In the final part of these plans of action, the Dakar and the Beirut Conferences make some specific proposals linked to specificities in each region:

iii) Recognition of studies and diplomas - mobility

167. Finally, both the declarations and the documents related to action of all regional conferences highlighted the importance of the Regional Conventions for the Recognition of Studies and Diplomas as an instrument for favouring mobility and for the development of co-operation.

168. The Dakar Conference states that `the African Regional Convention and the International Recommendation on the Recognition of Studies and Diplomas should be strengthened through the promotion of academic and professional mobility of students and academics. This would support the on-going regional integration process by using culture and education as a basis for political and economic unity. It would be desirable to strengthen associations whose aim is to harmonize the qualifications awarded by higher education institutions in Africa (e.g. CAMES). UNESCO should take the lead in mobilizing major regional and international organizations to create a region-wide mobility programme for students and academics. This has been done in other regions, one example being the RIMA (International Network for Academic Mobility), established by MERCOSUR'.

169. The idea of cultural integration appears also in Beirut where it was recommended that `within the framework of the Convention on the Recognition of Diplomas and Degrees of Higher Education, governments, institutions of higher education, professional bodies and international organizations must encourage student, academic and professional mobility to benefit the process of economic, educational, political and cultural integration in the Arab States and to develop mutually accepted standards for the recognition of diplomas. In this action, attention should be paid to incorporate the Arabic dimension as an integral part of teaching and research. Furthermore, all efforts should be made to remove practical, administrative and legal obstacles to academic exchange at institutional, national and international levels'.

170. The Tokyo Declaration mentions that within the framework of the Regional Convention on the Recognition of Studies, Diplomas and Degrees in Higher Education in Asia and the Pacific and the International Recommendation on the Recognition of Studies and Qualifications in Higher Education, there is a need to encourage the academic and professional mobility of students and academics and to develop mutually accepted standards for the recognition of credentials. This will benefit the process of economic, educational, political and cultural integration within the region and will require a collective effort by governments, professional bodies and international organizations.

171. The Beirut Conference summarizes the series of actions which should be undertaken by all regions and by all committees following the recommendations of the Regional Committee responsible for the application of the Convention on the Recognition of Studies, Diplomas and Degrees of Higher Education:

- exchange of information and documentation with regional committees of other regions;

- development of inter-regional co-operation among national documentation centres for recognition of studies and diplomas;

- development of capacities to collect, treat, and disseminate information in order to facilitate the recognition of higher education studies and diplomas;

- development of research aiming at facilitating the recognition of studies and diplomas in subjects such as academic and professional mobility and the recognition of skills and experiences etc.

172. Finally, on the same subject, but with a more regional characterized approach, the Palermo document, in its section devoted to `required action', says that `attention should be paid to incorporating the European dimension as an integral part of teaching and research and sustaining the diversity of the learning experience through student and staff mobility. This means strengthening existing provision for the recognition of degrees and diplomas, in particular through the implementation of the UNESCO/Council of Europe Joint Convention, and supporting the further development of a coherent credit transfer system. Furthermore, all efforts should be made to remove practical, administrative and legal obstacles to academic exchange at institutional, national and international level'.

iv) Networks

173. The Tokyo Conference urges international and regional organizations to support `projects aiming at establishing or strengthening university networks' and adds that higher education institutions `should network centres of excellence which respond to the most pressing training and research needs of the region. The transfer and exchange of knowledge and experience between higher education institutions and carried out in a spirit of solidarity should be the basis for these initiatives'.

174. The Dakar Conference points in the same direction, inviting existing associations of institutions and specialists, `as well as national, regional and international organizations to support and co-ordinate actions and projects aimed at establishing or strengthening inter-African and intercontinental networks working to reduce the gap between Africa and other regions by solving key regional development problems'. The Beirut Conference requests support to the activities of existing associations, especially the Association of Arab Universities, the Arab Federation of Councils for Scientific Research and the Arab Federation for Technical Education.

175. The Havana Conference introduces the idea of a network of networks, `resulting from the combination of efforts of the different ventures under way in the region, namely the Montevideo Group (AUGM), the Association of Amazonian Universities (UNAMAZ), the Association of Caribbean Universities (UNICA), the Central America Higher Education Council (CSUCA), among others'.

176. The Palermo document focuses more on the links with industry and mentions as a line of action that `networking with corporate laboratories, multi-national corporations, especially at regional level, has a particular role to play in enhancing the quality and scope of institutional research as well as its resource bases'. However, in another part of the document, `the importance of networking and true international partnerships for co-operation in teaching, research or service' is considered paramount.

177. The Havana Conference urges universities `to include special budget items devoted to horizontal regional co-operation' and suggests the creation of specialized units for managing international co-operation in each university as well as the central professional associations'. A similar proposal is made by the Tokyo and Beirut Conferences.

178. The Havana Conference has approved a declaration that is followed by a `Guide for preparing a plan of action'. It was agreed that this should include common aspects of existing national plans and promote inter-institutional interaction and collaboration at the regional and sub-regional levels.

As a result, CRESALC undertook a wide process of consultation involving several IGOs and NGOs in Latin America and the Caribbean and a coherent and well structured plan of action* was prepared as a general framework of operational reference focused on five programmes:

- improvement of relevance

- improvement of quality

- improvement of management and financing

- academic management of the new information and communication technologies

- reorientation of international cooperation.

* Plan of Action for the Transformation of Higher Education in Latin America and the Caribbean - CRESALC/UNESCO/Caracas