The EFA 2000 Assessment: Country Reports
Bhutan

No literacy survey has been conducted in Bhutan. Figures presently available vary according to sources and methods of estimation adopted. Generally, it was believed that the literacy level in 1991 was around 35-50 percent. More recent estimates point to a level of 54%. However no gender segregation is available although it is generally believed that female literacy is below the national average.

Non-formal education programme in Bhutan was conceived as an alternative educational channel to help people acquire literacy skills. Early school dropouts, young men and women are the main target groups of the programme.

Because of the limited resources and experience, the programme was initiated on a very small scale in 1990. Also wherever possible, the NFE programme uses the formal schools as the NFE centres. Apart from the benefits of the physical infrastructure such as classrooms, this also enables the programme to draw on other resources from the school such as its teachers and library facilities. The first structured curriculum for the NFE programme was drawn up in 1992. The curriculum tries to meet three broad objectives as defined below:

a) To provide literacy training in Dzongkha (national language) to both men and women who have not received such training through the formal education system.

b) to provide functional and basic life-skills related knowledge

c) to provide post literacy and continuing education programme to help establish a literate society.

Beginning with almost nothing, the NFE programme in Bhutan has now a structured curriculum and reading and learning materials to support it. A total of 30 readers have been developed on a wide variety of subjects to help the learners. The programme at present is structured into 3 distinct levels beginning with very basic literacy skills in level 1 and continuing to much more complex skills. The duration of the course ranges between 6 to 12 months. By the end of the course, learners are not only able to read and write but do simple, every day arithmetics. They also acquire basic knowledge on health, hygiene, family planning, agriculture, forestry, environment, culture and tradition.

The table below shows the number of NFE centres and their enrolment for different years from 1992 to the present.

From 6 centres in 1992, the programme has now expanded to 56 centres. Annual enrolment has also increased from 300 in 1992 to 2091 in 1999. At the end of 1999, there would be a total of 10,633 people who would have gone through this programme. Out of 10,633 enrolled, 5,000 or 60% are expected to have acquired basic literacy skills. It may also be noted that over 70% of the enrolment in this programme is women.

A full scale evaluation of the NFE programme was conducted by the Education Division in 1999. 1,556 persons from 18 Dzongkhags were interviewed and 600 tested on functional literacy/knowledge. The study compared scores on functional literacy/knowledge between old NFE learners and non-learners. The main findings showed that old NFE learners could fill out forms, read envelopes and sight words more easily while non-learners could not perform any of these functions. Old learners scored twice as high as non-learners in functional knowledge on health and hygiene and knowledge on STDs and in peforming simple math operations.

Starting 1996, post literacy programmes have been introduced as an effort to help the neo-literates to retain and enhance their literacy skills. Curriculum for Post Literacy Courses(PLC) has been designed in three different packages covering broad areas related to functional literacy, arithmetic, health care, agriculture, animal husbandry, environment, technical courses and value education. Each package takes 6 months to complete. The packages are not graded so as to facilitate the learners to choose any package they are most interested in.

A total of 30 readers and work books have also been developed to help the learners at this level. These materials were developed in workshop settings involving government staff from different line Ministries such as Agriculture, Health and National Environment Commission.

So far, 333 learners have enrolled in this programme in the 11 centres established to date. To help promote this programme, two pilot Community Learning Centres (CLC) have been established and more CLCs are planned to be established within the next 5 years. The details of the learners enrolled in the PLCs are as follows:

Post literacy programmes are not confined to those who have passed from the Basic Literacy programme. They are extended also to those who have received literacy training through the monastic education system as well as the formal education system such as school dropouts. Like the Basic Literacy classes, the post literacy programme also uses the formal schooling facilities including its teachers and library resources. An exception is in communities where they have community learning centres in which case such centres are utilized for both Basic and Post Literacy programmes.

Training and creating a pool of competent NFE teachers is another important component towards making the NFE programme successful. As mentioned earlier, a majority of these teachers are primary teachers trained to deliver the formal education curriculum with little knowledge of adult learning. Therefore, the Division of Education organizes short training programmes in the winter vacations to provide these teachers with special skills required to cope with the NFE curriculum and teaching adult learners. Introduced formally in 1994, the government has so far trained 360 teachers as follows:

One of the strategies adopted by the Government to ensure that NFE programmes make significant impact in alleviating illiteracy has been to get the communities concerned to initiate the programme themselves. The community concerned has to formally make a request through their local representative to the Dzongkhag Education Office, who can study the proposal and then recommend for its establishment. This ensures that literacy programmes are made available to communities who are already receptive of the programme and see the need for such skills thereby helping the implementors to get better cooperation and higher success rates. This has also been instrumental in ensuring that the small NFE sub-sector is not overloaded in terms of resources, both materials and teachers.

A larger and much more significant achievement in this sub-sector is in the establishment of a programme which can now begin to address the needs of the wider population. The successful implementation of the programme in the various NFE centres have given invaluable experience and confidence amongst both educators and the administrators to take the challenge of mass implementation in the following decade. More importantly, this has also impressed upon the population that the NFE programme can be an effective means towards realizing their desire to be literate. As a result, the demand for NFE centres is increasing and for the next 5-10 years, the challenge will be to meet the demand with the same quality programmes.

While the concept of an all round and wholesome education has been an established philosophy of education in Bhutan, a number of initiatives were taken during the decade under review which has had far reaching impact on this objective. They are changes and enrichment within the formal education curriculum, introduction of basic skills development programme and youth programmes.

One of the most significant events in the domain of curriculum change is incidentally the articulation of a framework for learning which defines the purpose of education and describes its components to the barest details. This document helps not only curriculum workers but the implementors of the curriculum in the classroom, the teachers. This is a major achievement of the decade because it translates many of the abstract goals and aspirations to curriculum objectives easily comprehendible to ordinary teachers.

The period 1990 to 1999 saw major efforts to enhance the students understanding about issues related to health and to enhance the personal health of the students. While the school curriculum includes basic knowledge on health, nutrition and sanitation a major effort is also being expanded to improve the personal hygiene and health of the students. Since 1998, a comprehensive school health programme has been launched in schools. This is a collaborative effort between Health and Education Division which amongst others monitor the health of the children and help the schools to improve their sanitation and minimize health related hazards. Under this programme, the schools work closely with the hospitals and the Basic Health Units.

Population Education, environment and conservation have also received a lot of attention in the past decade. The Health Sector, National Environmental Commission, and the Royal Society for the Protection of Nature have been active partners in enhancing this component of education in the schools.

Songs, dances and music form important part of the school's co-curricular activities. All efforts are made to encourage the students to explore their innate talents in different art forms. Within the confines of a limited resource, all efforts are made to provide musical instruments and art materials to the schools to help them in this effort.

In addition, the government has been providing increasing attention to improving sports and recreation facilities in the schools. Organised physical activities such as games and sports are seen as being important to develop physical, social and mental skills in youths and improve their physical health. While extolling their benefits the programmes were until now left very much upto the schools without much monitoring and support from the centre. However from 1999, the Division of Education has developed and is implementing a new physical education programme. The government is also making efforts to include Physical Education as an optional stream for teacher educators in its two teacher training institutions.

Over 80% of the country's population live in rural areas and are dependent on agriculture. Therefore, agriculture education has always been stressed as an important component of the education curriculum. In this regards, the schools are encouraged to maintain school vegetable and flower gardens, piggery and poultry farms. By involving students in such projects they gain experiences which encourage them to undertake similar projects in their homes. The programme was initiated with the Agriculture Ministry and for some time in the early 1980s, received funding from OXFAM. Prompted by increasing rural-urban migration as well as the emerging problems related to educated unemployment, the Ministry of Agriculture and Education are joining hands to strengthen the school agriculture project.

Furthermore, in higher classes, especially in IX and X, the students are encouraged to initiate and take up activities which are socially useful and productive. Students carry out such activities in the form of individual or group projects with the help of teachers in the class. Such activities develop skills in youth which help them to be useful in the community where they live.

This programme was initiated in 1997 by the Technical and Vocation Education Section (TVES) of the Education Division. BSDP is targeted at the students as well as out of school youth and adults to enhance dignity of labour, promote civic responsibilities, engage them in self supporting economic activities and encourage lifelong learning. For the students, these are organized in the form of school clubs wherein a teacher takes the lead role in providing essential guidance. Tools and equipment are provided by the government. A total of 563 people constituting students, teachers, juveniles, villagers and support staff of schools have been trained in various occupational skills. Of the 563 trained from January 1997 to February 1999, 106 were trained in plumbing, 113 in house wiring, 86 in construction carpentry, 59 in furniture making, 29 in hair cutting, 145 in masonry and 25 in gardening.

Furthermore, starting1999, the TVES has instituted 9 vocational centres. In addition to providing basic vocational skills-training to school-leavers seeking employment, the vocational centres will be expected to promote vocational skills among their general students. These centres will be based in formal schools and institutions and provide training programmes as per local demands. So far ten vocational instructors have also been trained who will provide the lead role in running these centres. In addition, TVES expects to provide mobile technical staff to support these programmes.

Another important programme that has been established recently by the government is the Rigney Education. This programme is mainly targeted at school leavers who wish to take up vocations in traditional arts and crafts. The Trashi Yangtse Rigney Institute in eastern Bhutan offers training in the 13 traditional arts and crafts known as Zorig Chusum. The school which was established in 1997 has at present an enrolment of 30 students. In addition, the Painting school in Thimphu trains students in Bhutanese religious and traditional decorative arts. The school has at present an enrolment of 56.

A few of the emerging issues related to youth are the problems of educated unemployment, substance abuse, delinquencies, thefts, sexual offences etc. especially in the urban areas. While no specific targets were set for this issue, it was generally believed that this required to be tackled through the existing formal schooling programme as well as focused programmes targeted at the urban youth.

In response to this, the government in 1996 established a new section within Education Division, called theYouth Guidance and Counselling Service (YGCS). Since its inception, YGCS has established a comprehensive youth guidance and counselling programme to help youth cope with the multitude of issues that beset them. This includes providing information as well as working together with the youth to understand and guide them through their problems. YGCS also provides career education to all students to promote a realistic assessment of their own capability and interest relative to the world of work. Programmes are also developed to impart physical and reproductive health education information to youth. Heads of tertiary institutes, secondary schools, primary schools, District Education Officers, and senior educationist have been trained to respond better to the issues of youth problems and provide counselling roles.

Another programme which is gaining increasing popularity in the kingdom is the scouts programme. Established for a few students in early 1990s, this programme is increasingly being viewed as an important channel for imparting essential skills and values in our youth which will help them to cope with many of the issues facing them.

The Education Division also established a Youth Centre in Thimphu in May 1996 to cater to the needs of growing numbers of youths and adults. The centre aims at not only providing the recreational facilities but also providing skill based literacy programmes for self employment to youth such as computer literacy, tailoring, knitting, house wiring, painting etc. The courses are being certified to help them get employment. The centre is also initiating club activities such as visual arts, youth environment education, sports, languages, yoga and so on. In future, the centre plans to open mini youth centres in all the districts to carry out similar activities.

Besides the formal and the non-formal education programme, there are numerous government and non-government programmes which help provide skills, knowledge and values to the general population at large thus contributing to the EFA goals and objectives. One of the most important of these programmes is the monastic education system. Instituted in the 8th century a.d. this was the only form of education available in the country till early part of this century. While the institution of modern education system has pushed this programme to the background, the programme nevertheless continues to play a major role in providing education to those who opt to take up monastic and ecclesiastic calling. In the Bhutanese context, such decisions are made quite early in life and a significant proportion of the Bhutanese population continue to be beneficiary of this form of education. Unfortunately, for this report it has not been possible to get reliable data on the extent of such beneficiaries.

There are numerous types of programmes provided by different monastic institutions. The most organized of this is the programme which is directly administered by the Central Monastic Body. While the Headquarters remain Tashi-Chhodzong, this monastic order commands similar institutions in all the 20 Dzongs. These institutions also provide patronage to numerous Gomdeys (Lay monk's monasteries), Drubdeys (Meditation centres), Shedras (School for language and arts), Lobdras (Monastic schools) and Nunneries. The information currently available estimate the enrolment in these institutions to 5,289 as follows:

A less well organized institution but nevertheless covering a wider expanse of the country are the village temples (Goenpas) which also may house a respected Lama and his lay followers who study under him to become lay-practitioners of religion. The record of the Special Commission for Cultural Affairs indicate that there are 2002 monasteries and temples spread throughout the country. Even assuming a modest number of 5 gomchens in these places, one would get to a figure of 10,000 in the country. In addition, there are the nunneries where there is an estimated enrolment of 500.

Instituted early in the 1970s, the extension programme is seen as playing an important role in helping farmers improve farming practices and improving management of farming resources. The knowledge and skills are disseminated through exhibitions, demonstrations, farmer’s training courses, study tours and distribution of information leaflets. Farmer-Extension Communication Support Unit (FECSU) has been set up in the Ministry to produce leaflets, booklets, posters and charts for general distribution to extension agents and farmers.

In the Seventh Five Year Plan (1992-1997) about 59,789 farmers were trained on improved farming and livestock rearing techniques, study tours were organized for 1210 farmers and 64 exhibitions were held throughout the country.

The programme is seen as being successful in enhancing the awareness and skills of the farmers on modern farming practices and management. It has been observed that farmers are growing improved seed varieties and cash crops and rearing more cross-bred cattle leading to higher income generation.

Educating the general public on basic health, hygiene, nutrition and family planning is one of the integral programmes of the Health Division. Information, Education, Communication for Health (IECH) Bureau has been created in 1992 primarily for educating the public on health related issues. The Bureau publishes pamphlets, leaflets, flip charts for distribution to the public. It also organizes health festivals, health exhibitions, skits and plays in public gatherings to enhance awareness.

In addition, the basic health workers in the villages play a crucial role in transmitting health related information to the villagers. As a result there is an enhanced awareness amongst the rural population on the values of hygiene, nutrition and small family. Health records also show that an increasing proportion of the population are now availing modern health care facilities.

Public awareness and education has been recognized as one of the important means to achieve the country’s policy of environmental conservation and sustainable development. National Environment Commission established in 1989, Nature Conservation Section of Forestry Services Division established in 1984, Royal Society for Protection of Nature established in 1987 and the World Wildlife Fund are actively involved in this effort.

The National Environment Commission has trained so far 550 Block Development Committee members and farmers from forty seven blocks in six districts on environmental awareness and management. It has also carried out environmental awareness activities in schools throughout the country. These training and awareness activities have been very successful in raising awareness and understanding of the importance of environmental conservation.

To enhance the vocational skills and promote entrepreneurship amongst the population, the Ministry of Trade and Industries has set up Entrepreneurship Promotion Centre in 1991. Apart from providing training programmes on entrepreneurship, the centre also organizes basic skills training to the school drop- outs, the unemployed youth and villagers. Some of the courses offered by the centre are tailoring and design course, basic plumbing, basic hair cutting, electrical house wiring and cuisine preparation. It is evident from the below that a majority of the trainees in these programmes are women.

In addition, Technical and Vocational Education Section (TVES) of Education Division also provides similar training to students, support staff of schools and villagers including women using a mobile training system approach. Furthermore, the National Women’s Association of Bhutan has trained many women in income generating skills like weaving, knitting and tailoring.

In line with the policy of decentralization and community participation in decision making , the government has initiated capacity building programme and decentralized management at the block level.

In 1997 it started "Strengthening Capacities for Development Management and Decentralization" with assistance from the UNDP. Under this project, community leaders from ten blocks in six districts have been trained in local development of plans and programmes, effective communication and reporting system skills. They were also briefed on policies and guidelines like irrigation, water users association etc. that directly affect their lives.

The traditional means of communication in Bhutan such as public gatherings during annual religious festivals and frequent block and village level meetings are still used as an important and effective tool for delivering most of the knowledge, skills and values mentioned in the preceding paragraphs, . Besides, radio is also an important tool of communication particularly for the remote places. The national radio, Bhutan Broadcasting Service presents regular programmes on agriculture, health, education, environment, religion and culture, rural development and issues on women in Dzongkha, Sharchop and Nepali - three widely spoken languages in the country.

The EFA plan was conceived within a highly charged environment of idealism and hope. Despite the emotive appeal to go all out, experience had persuaded Bhutan to moderate the targets to reflect what was conceived as being tenable. While this has meant that some of the global EFA targets would not have been attained, the government still has a high success rate to report within the context of the national programmes.

The strategies and plan outlined under the EFA action plan is seen as relevant and viewed as being largely effective for achieving the EFA targets. The strategies that were successful in addressing the EFA goals were those that were time tested. For example the community schooling concept had already been proven as a cost-effective means to help increase primary enrolment coverage before launching the EFA programme. Similarly, NAPE approach had found wide acceptance amongst the administrators and educators as a medium to help improve the quality of education.

The most successful programmes were also those that relied on community participation and involved little additional resources. In particular, the community schooling concept now enables the establishment of primary schools anywhere in the country with significantly lower costs to the government. An important reason why the government has not achieved UPE is because of its inability at this stage to provide adequate trained teachers and learning resources to all such schools. Arising from the experience of the community schools is the need to involve and ensure the acceptability of the programme amongst the beneficiaries. This has been one of the important strategies behind the formal as well as the NFE programmes.

One of the main strategies adopted by the government to implement the EFA programmes was to use existing education and administrative channels rather than create additional EFA structures. This was considered as being desirable and practical because of the constraint of human and other resources. However, it is realized now the EFA objectives could have been more successful if a high level body of EFA representatives were formed to facilitate better networking amongst the sectors concerned with issues related to EFA programmes. A case in example is the "rural-flavoured" education approach which is an important objective of EFA programme but still has not made much progress. Additional support from the Agriculture Ministry could have made this more successful. Similarly, while some of Divisions such as Health, Agriculture, Water and Sanitation are solicited for helping the Education Division develop its curriculum materials for both formal and NFE programme, not much of networking and support has been established at the field level for these sectors to support each others programmes.

While a major part of the programmes outlined under the EFA have been carried out, a few programmes could not be undertaken either due to other emerging priorities or because of unavailability of resources. One of the programmes planned was a radio programme on child care. This was not carried out as envisaged. Instead, a programme was launched titled "Education calling teachers" which covers a wide range of topics of professional interest to teachers. This programme was considered a higher priority because of the need to keep teachers abreast of the changes as well as to keep up the morale of the teachers, especially those serving in the remoter parts of the country.

Another important programme that could not be properly implemented was the rehabilitation of primary schools. In order to provide quality education it was deemed necessary to provide at least basic minimum standards in the facilities accommodating academic and other student activities. In addition it has been noted that to get teachers to stay in the remote schools, they required better living quarters than were commonly available. However, within the conditions of a perpetual resource constraint, the rehabilitation and improvements of existing school always feature last in a long list of priority programmes. This has been also the case during the period under review. Despite bewailing the terrible conditions under which some schools operate and teachers live, there has been very little that the government has been able to achieve in this area.

Private sector involvement has been looked upon as a possible means of alleviating some of the admission pressures being felt by the education sector. However, there are only 7 private schools operating in the country, all located in the urban areas. Between them they enrol only 1,544 students constituting only about 2 percent of the total student enrolment. The biggest disappointment in this programme has been questionable quality of the programme offered by some of these schools. Therefore, the government has taken a stance not to allow any more private primary schools to be established in the country, but to restrict it only to those that cater to the secondary and post-secondary levels.

Major industries such as the Hydro Projects and the Cement Industries are assisting the government to provide schooling places for the children of their employees as envisaged in the EFA plan. At present there are two such schools being assisted by these projects.

Another programme where the government has not been able to make much headway has been on education for children with disabilities. The proposed survey for disabilities did not take place as planned. However, the School for the Blind was renamed as the National Institute for the Disabled which demonstrates the intention of the government to use this institute as a focal point for developing programmes for a population with other forms of disability. Some vocational programmes for the blind students have been introduced so far.

Some of the other strategies and activities that were not stressed very strongly in the EFA action plan but was nevertheless adopted in the course of the period were prompted by the emerging issues. This is particularly true of issues related to youth problems which have prompted both educators and the parents to review the education content and processes. This also has led to a renewed emphasis on these aspects of the education process.

A major point that was highlighted in the EFA plan was on the issue of resources, particularly of shortages in materials and teachers. Despite a number of strategies that have been implemented as mentioned in previous sections, these have been the biggest stumbling block in the achievement of the EFA goals. Inadequate resources even now heads the list of all other issues within the Education Division. A cursory analysis of the subject indicate that the government has increased the allocation to education from approximately 223.136 million in 1991 to Nu NU 841.188 million in 1999. More so, the communities bore an increasing cost of the primary education programme through their contribution to the development of community schools. On the other hand, contribution from many International donors has neither reflected the significant expansion of the system nor pressures brought to bear by the goals established at Jomtein. In fact, resources from certain organizations have even fallen.

At the same time, enrolment expansion at the primary level has created even more pressures at the secondary education level. This has resulted in critical shortages of secondary education facilities as well as lack of adequate competent national teachers for this level of education. Therefore, teacher shortage even now continues to head the list of problems faced by the schools and the education administration at all levels. The gap has been filled by a large number of expatriate teachers, 14% at primary and 39% at secondary levels or an overall dependence of 20%.

Some of the progress being made in enhancing education coverage is being offset by the growth in population due to improved medical services. In addition, topography, climate, limited communication links and scattered pattern of settlement have also impeded access to education and contributed towards a very high unit recurrent costs. While parental contribution for establishing new primary schools has increased over the past decade, the costs of teachers salaries, materials, stationery and books continue to be largely borne by the government. This has led the Government to look closely at the cost effectiveness of the system as well as review its free education policy. The "free" education policy originated during a time when few student numbers were involved and when most parents did not have the capacity to pay for their children's education. With rapid expansion at the primary level, and the foreseen growth at the secondary levels and other levels of education, it is becoming quite difficult to sustain this system. In view of this, as well as considering the general improvement in the economy during the last 3 decades, the Government is convinced that some provisions of the free facilities could be withdrawn from certain sections of the population. This in fact would be the only way by which the education system could be made self sufficient and sustainable in the future. In view of the above, provision of free stationery (9 items) has been removed from all schools including primary schools located in urban areas as of 1994. Similarly boarding places of primary and junior high (Class VI and below) schools have been phased out and are available only for children qualified to continue to higher classes and where there are no such schooling facilities near their homes. However such moves are being implemented cautiously and closely monitored to ensure that it does not affect the enrolment of any groups of population.

Compounding the above are the problems related to the mismatch between individual aspirations and national or social needs. Bhutan still continues to employ a large number of expatriate in the field of education, construction industries and technical areas. And yet, while the existing schools combat with the problems of admission pressures and limited space, the two technical institutes continue to remain under-enrolled every year. While much of these have been determined by a wider societal milieu, education too is perceived as playing a role and therefore, there is an increasing call from the government circles as well as parents for the education system to tackle these issues. Apart from the social prejudices against vocational and manual works, lack of information and guidance in the schools has been pointed out as some of the contributing factors for such imbalances.

Curriculum at all levels of education continue to be questioned on the aspect of its relevancy. Despite the large resources already expended on this, much more requires to be done. A major concern is that the existing curriculum does not address fully the objectives related to values, skills and knowledge required by the future generation and for the world of work. The emerging problems related to rural-urban migration and juvenile delinquency have also been blamed on the education system and its inability to address these issues adequately.

As mentioned earlier, qualitative development of the system is impeded by resource constraints. While the concern for improving quality continues to be expressed in every plan document, the pace of expansion imposed by the demand from the communities have taken a disproportionate amount of resources thus impinging on the qualitative development of the system. Because of the lack of maintenance funds, many school buildings have become dilapidated, sanitary facilities appalling, sports facilities non-existent and school library and other learning resources at best, rudimentary. The issue of resources, both internal and external aid, will continue to occupy a major part of the development agenda in the coming decade too.

Compared to the early years of the education system when children were required to be conscripted into the schools, parents now not only demand schools for their communities but are willing to contribute much more for the construction and maintenance of these schools. As mentioned earlier, in many cases, it is the government which has to provide alternate strategies such as delaying the enrolment of the child, to restrain the pace of development because of the lack of resources such as teachers and materials.

Many more parents are now themselves educated and can participate in the provision of education to their children meaningfully both at home and in schools. Some of these parents can also provide valuable inputs in the process of improving the education delivery system including curriculum development.

A growing number of people are also able to pay for the cost of their children's education or at least some portion of it. The government's decision to withdraw the free supply of stationery from schools situated in the urban and Dzongkhag headquarters have not in any way diminished the demand for education in these schools. Further, a progressive increase in the share of cost by parents could now become a possibility given the increase in the average earning of the Bhutanese as well as the prevailing high demand for education. Corresponding growth in the economy could also help enhance the budget being made available for education.

Non-Formal Education which was initiated as a pilot programme just about 8 years ago is also gaining popularity as a viable means for adults and out of school youth to attain literacy skills. The Education Division now faces an increasing challenge to keep at pace with the demand from the communities to establish NFE programmes and learning centres. Also important is the acceptance by the policy makers that such schemes can work and help not only enhance literacy rates but serve as important channels for disseminating essential knowledge on a variety of issues.

On the political front, Bhutan has always believed in the concept of linking development to enhancing the quality of life of every individual in the country. This is aptly termed "Gross National Happiness". Within this broad development philosophy, education has always received a high priority with 10-18% of its planned expenditure being set for education sector during the last 40 years.

Despite this positive environment, the over riding fact is that Bhutan still remains an LDC with many of the problems associated with such countries. Over 80% of the Bhutanese population are engaged in subsistence farming. With a very low revenue base, high social service costs most of which is provided free, the government is concerned rightly about the sustainability of the programmes that are established. Other emerging issues are related to mismatch in expectations between the educated youth and the employment opportunities, youth related problems and issues of rural-urban migration. Therefore, while the total resources for education may remain undiminished and even increase, less are available for expansion and qualitative development within the system because of the dispersion of the resources to tackle these other issues.

With increasing level of community participation for all levels of the education programme, the provision of education through the formal and non-formal channels is now tenable in all parts of the country. However, the government still suffers from a weak institutional base to support and help deliver the EFA programmes. The total staffing in the Education Headquarters is at present 150, comprising of 88 officers and 62 support staff. These officers are expected to provide general direction, policy analysis and support, develop curriculum, procure and deliver supplies to schools, recruit teachers and deploy them, provide professional support to all schools and institutions and so on, establish standards for buildings, conduct national level examinations and implement national projects. The country is divided into 20 districts (dzongkhags). Each Dzongkhag has a Dzongkhag Education Officer who is expected to plan and provide support to the educational programmes within the dzongkhag. Apart from two larger dzongkhags, the DEO is the sole officer representing the sector in the Dzongkhag administration. Under such circumstances the DEO is hard pressed to meet his/her professional responsibilities. Therefore, with the growth of the education system both in terms of the number of schools and institutions as well as in the complexity of the programmes and issues, the administrative support and institutions are seen as increasingly being over-loaded and becoming inadequate.

Unless this particular issue is addressed in a holistic manner, not only the EFA goals but all the other programmes of the education sector will be adversely affected.

As mentioned in the earlier sections, considerable progress has been made in achieving the EFA targets even against overwhelming odds posed by the constraints of financial and human resources. The Bhutanese primary education system provides education to 31,000 more children than it did in 1991 or an increase of 68%. Despite the pressure of enrolment and the resulting increase in class sizes, the Bhutanese Education system has been able to maintain high standards in many of the core learning area especially in languages. Children nowadays also stay longer in the system and take less numbers of years to complete schooling.

Many of the beneficiaries of expansion have been the children living in the peripheral and remote parts of the country and those engaged in transmigration practices. In fact, one of the most disadvantaged groups of population in terms of education access as well as in many other respects has until recently been the yak herders who lead a semi-nomadic life moving with their yaks. Till 1991, there were only 3 schools catering to this group of population. 3 more community schools have now been established to cater to these population groups and it is estimated that the coverage of education in these places is well above the national average now.

Non formal education which began on a cautious pilot footing has proved its effectiveness and has won the trust from administrators and the general public. The programme has increased its annual coverage from 300 in 1992 to 1932 in 1999. The NFE section is now ready for a much more ambitious expansion programme. With the programmes mostly directed at the rural women, this is seen as an important programme for not just enhancing literacy skills but helping improve other facets of life in the villages.

Skills based learning programmes are beginning to increase in scope as well as quality. Even some private entrepreneurs are now beginning to show interest in this area. Of particular importance is the increasing attention being provided by the government to improve coordination amongst different organizations engaged in such tasks.