Table 3.4 indicates that in the 1990s the illiteracy rates of adult population aged 15 and over has further declined, indicating a decline of 5.9 percentage points and in the meantime, the gender disparity has narrowed by 6.3 percentage points.

In the period 1990-1997, the adult illiteracy rates of people aged 15 and over decreased from 22.27% to 16.36%, indicating a reduction of 5.9 percentage points. Although there were such reductions in all provinces, autonomous regions, and municipalities, there were regional disparities. We may classify them into four categories by the range of reduction: (1) Six provinces with reductions over 10 percentage points: Anhui (14.2), Tibet (13.5), Gansu (13.0), Yunnan (12.3), Jiangxi (11.4), and Guizhou (10.5). Most of them are economically underdeveloped and had high illiteracy rates before.(2) 14 provinces with reductions ranging from 5-10 percentage points: Henan, Shaanxi, etc.. (3) Nine Provinces with reductions ranging from 0-5 percentage points: Zhejiang, Beijing, etc. Among them are several provinces with high illiteracy rates in 1990 and low reductions during the 1990s: Shandong (1.35), Guangxi (1.35), Jiangsu (3.3).(4) Qinghai Province, which had an adult illiteracy rate of 43.6% in 1990 and scored an increase of 4.62 percentage points during the 1990s. Qinghai had an adult illiteracy rate of 43.6%, being the last but one in ranking. It should be noted that the difference between the bottom ranking Tibet and Qinghai narrowed from 27 percentage points in 1990 to 10.4 percentage points in 1997. Figure 3.3 provides information on the reduction (or enlargement) of adult illiteracy rates in various provinces in the period 1990-1997. From the sequential order given it can be seen that the four province Shandong, Jiangsu, Zhejiang, and Fujian occupy respectively the 7^th, 9^th, 10^th and 12^th position counted backward, and these positions are quite incompatible with their positions in level of economic development in the country and their achievement in basically universalizing 9-year compulsory schooling (having passed the province-wide acceptance). These four provinces have large adult populations 15 years and over, with illiterate adult population totaling 27,920,000, accounting for 24.8% of the total illiterate adult population of the nation. To accelerate the pace of eradicating illiteracy in these provinces has an important bearing on the reduction of adult illiteracy rates in the whole country.

It should be noted that although all provinces and autonomous regions have scored varying successes in reducing illiteracy rates, yet the regional disparities remain quite significant. In Beijing, Liaoning and Jilin, it can be said that illiteracy has been basically eliminated, while adult illiteracy rates in Qinghai and Tibet are as high as 43.6% and 54.1% respectively. Gender disparities in these areas are even more striking.

Note: "a"--Fujian, "b"--Qinghai, "c"--Hainan, "d"--Guangxi,, "e"--Tianjin, "f"--Zhejiang,

"g"--Shandong, "h "--Jiangsu, "I"--Hebei, "j"-- Sichuan, "k"--Yunnan, "l"--Shaanxi, "m"--Xijiang,

"n"--Hunan, "o"--Hubei, "p"--Shanghai, "q"--Anhui, "r"--Ningxia, "s"--Shanxi, "t"--Neimeng,

"u"--Guangdong, "v"--Heilonhjiang, "w"--Jilin, "x"--Beijing, "y"--Liaoning, "z"--Guizhou,

"a1"--Gansu, "b1"--Jiangxi, "c1"--Henan

Figure 3.4 indicates that China's provinces may be divided into three classes by their relative gender disparities in adult illiteracy rates. The first class includes eight provinces, showing negative values in the chart, indicating that their gender disparities in adult illiteracy rates are narrowing. Arranged by the descending order of the absolute value of gender disparity, they are: Fujian, Qinghai, Hainan, Guangxi, Tianjin, Zhejiang, Shandong, and Jiangsu. The second class includes five provinces indicating zero disparity, and they are: Hebei, Sichuan, Yunnan, Shaanxi, and Xinjiang. The third class includes seventeen provinces and autonomous regions indicating positive values of relative gender disparities in the chart, indicating that gender disparities in illiteracy rates in these provinces have been enlarging. They are especially glaring in Henan and Jiangxi. In the 1990s the female illiteracy rates in these two provinces have declined in varying degrees, with concomitant reduction of the absolute values of gender disparities. Their relative gender disparities have been enlarging significantly, since the male illiteracy rates have been declining at a speed higher than that of female illiteracy rates.

The findings of the 1% population sample survey conducted in 1995 indicate that the adult illiteracy rates of people living in county seats and rural towns are similar to the adult illiteracy rates prevailing in cities, but the gender disparities are somewhat larger in the former. But the rural-urban disparities in adult illiteracy rates are very large: MF, male and female adult illiterates in rural areas are higher than that in urban areas by 10.5, 6.95, and 14.36 percentage points respectively. The gender disparities in illiteracy rates are as follows: urban--9.87 percentage points; rural--17.28 percentage points, with the latter exceeding the former by 7.41 percentage points. Since 70% of China's population live in the countryside, and rural adult illiteracy rates are high and the gender disparities are also large in the countryside, the priority and the difficult area of literacy work lies in rural areas. See Table 3.4 for details.

Note: City population includes the rural population of the city, while county population is divided into population living in the county seat and rural towns on the one hand and those living in the countryside on the other.

To meet the learning needs of adults in China, a relatively independent subsystem of adult education has been set up as an integral part of the education system of China. Adult education may be divided into three categories in the context of our discussion and in the light of the specific features of adult learners and the nature of adult education. First, post-literacy education. Its purpose is to consolidate the gains of literacy work and prevent relapse into illiteracy, and to enable the neo-literates to survive and live better and to improve their employability. Thus, in China the state requires local authorities to provide post-literacy education for the neo-literates so as to enhance their ethical, scientific and cultural standards. In 1994, SEdC issued the syllabi for primary level "practical Chinese", "practical Mathematics", and "practical elements of science and technology", and required local authorities to compile appropriate teaching materials in the light of local conditions. Second, vocational/skills training for adults. Its purpose is to help adults to adapt to the needs of the world of work and acquire job-related skills. This kind of training has a very broad scope, and its target groups include both the neo-literates and those with higher educational attainment; and the training programs provided include both pre-employment training and in-service training and training for job transfer. Third, formal or quasi-formal adult education for the acquisition of formal academic qualifications. Its purpose is to provide compensatory education for adults who were deprived of the opportunity of formal schooling or dropped out before completion of their schooling. The first and second categories of adult education are mainly provided by adult primary and secondary schools, vocational training schools/centers, secondary vocational schools, and the training courses run by NGOs and enterprises and institutions. The third category of adult education is mainly provided by adult primary and secondary schools and adult HEIs. Figure 3.7 shows the broad features of the system of adult education in China and the total enrollment figures in each major component as of 1997.

In the 1980s major readjustments of the educational structure were made and effective measures were taken to develop vocational education, especially at the secondary level, and as a result vocational education developed rapidly in these years. The Guidelines for the Reform and Development of Education in China released in 1993 makes the following provisions in the realm of adult education: "to give high priority to job-related training and continuing education according to the principles of integrating learning with application, providing training in the light of needs, and giving attention to effectiveness of programs." "To energetically develop rural adult education and run well the adult cultural-technical schools in townships so as to enhance the quality of the rural work force." Accordingly, training programs of various types and levels have been developed vigorously by local authorities and communities.

According to available data, in the period 1993-1997, the total number of vocational schools/training centers for adults increased from 398,000 to 455,000 in the country, indicating an increase of 146,000; the cumulative volume of training provided by them in this period reached 256,000,000 person-times, of which 237,000,000 or 92.6% of the total were provided for peasants, and 19,140,000 or 7.4% of the total were provided for urban workers and staff members. 2,336,000 person-times or 9.1% of the total received long-term (one year and over) training and 229,000,000 person-times or 89.9% of the total received short-term (under one year, mostly lasting several weeks). Figure 3.8 provides information on the volume of training given in these years.

By comparing the situation of training for adults in 1997 with that in 1993, two features loom large. One is that peasants constitute the main body of trainees, and their number has been steadily increasing. Another is that short-term (less than one year) programs constitute the main body of training programs provided, and their weight has been steadily increasing. See Tables 3.5 for details.