Until the 1990s young children were viewed as conscious citizens of our future society, with many-sided abilities, entitled to care and development from very early ages.

At that time, the key institutions providing pre-school education were nursery schools (ages 0-2) and kindergartens (ages 3-7). The main policy was "kindergarten-centered", and the government fully financed kindergartens.

With the start of transition to market economy in 1990, along with decrease of economic capacity of the country some difficulties have begun to occur in the educational sector.

In 1994, the allocation for pre-school education made up 22,25% of the budget of the educational system, while the expenditure for one pupil per year increased by 14,8% in comparison with 1990. Such increase of expenditure is directly connected to the fact that in 1990-1994 the inflation rates reached 1000% on average. Accordingly, the share of education of the Gross Domestic Product dropped to 15,6% in 1990 and to 7,9% in 1994. The number of kindergartens went down by 27,3% in 1995 due to such reasons as reduction of budgeted investment and subsidy, increase of cost for electricity and heating, remote location from the target market (especially kindergartens in the countryside). (chart 1)

Under the previous system, some organizations and enterprises ran kindergartens for children whose parents worked for the specific organization and these financed the kindergartens their budget. This kind of kindergarten made up 14,3% of all kindergartens (The 1990 data reveal that 130 of 909 operating kindergartens were financed by organizations to which they were attached). In connection with transition to the market economy system, privatized of state–owned production and business entities ceased supporting kindergartens. The number of kindergartens run by organizations dropped by 5,7% in 1995, compared to 1990. By 1995, organizing-financed kindergarten made up only 3,3% of all kindergartens.

Kindergartens and nursery schools used to be fully financed from the state budget. With the start of transition to the market economy a decision was made to oblige the parents to pay 50% of children’s meals. This began to limit access opportunities for children from families with income lower than subsistence minimum. The number of people with income lower than subsistence minimum made up 17,8% of the total population in 1993. Among those, a total of 81000 children, or 20,1%, were of kindergarten age. (chart 2) not available

Thus, due to above-mentioned social and economic problems kindergarten enrollment during the early years of transition dropped by 9,1%, making up 18,8%, if compared to its previous achievement.

Educational Law adopted by Baga Khural of Mongolia in 1991 prescribes pre-school education to be included in the general educational structure. In accordance with the law, nursery school is an organization designed to provide day-care for children aged under 3, and it is to be of 3 types, namely ordinary, caring and for orphaned children. The Educational Law (1991) identifies nursery as an

organization to provide a child with day-care. Accordingly, nursery is viewed as a non-educational organization generally designed to provide child day-care and has been offered under the supervision of the Ministry of Health. Since the 1990s it has been conceived that it is more appropriate to bring up young children aged 0-3 within the family, under parents’ care; therefore, a policy has been introduced to enable mothers take care of young children under 2-years-old, while receiving child home care allowance from a social pension fund.

As a result of granting mothers a right to nurse babies at home, the number of children attending day-care centers decreased. On the other hand, it has become impossible (and, besides, needless) to run kindergartens with low rate of utilization on high expenditures paid through state subsidy. The number of childcare centers in operation dropped down from 441 in 1990 to 51 in 1995 thus shrinking 8,6 times. Eventually, a decision was made to re-organize day care centers into independent institutions engaged in charity care-providing and recreation for children belonging to the vulnerable community of the society, while kindergartens would take up the duty of ordinary nursery schools by opening classes for younger children (aged 0-3), where it was necessary.

In 1990, 11545 children aged 0-2 out of total 196440 children of the same age were attending nursery classes or kindergartens, but in 1995 only 4669 children of the named age were doing so, or only 3,2% of the total number. (chart 3) not available

In our country, handicapped children used to receive education through special kindergartens, schools or in special groups. This type of training would offer children an opportunity to gain appropriate levels of education through special simplified curriculum with the help of special methodology.

In the 1990s, 13% of handicapped young children were involved in kindergartens providing special medical care and handicap and rehabilitation service. Among these, 77% were suffering from inherent disabilities, while 23% were handicapped for other reasons. In 1994, out of total 60959 children attending ordinary kindergartens 1,5% was children with mental or physical disabilities. In the same year, out of all 0-6 year-old children, 1246 were suffering from mental disability, 362 from orthopedic disorders, 852 were deaf or hard of hearing, 90 were blind, that altogether makes up 0,6% of all children of the same age.

Since the 1990s children from families with income lower than subsistence minimum have been involved in special charity groups in kindergartens. A social pension fund pays for children’s meal provision, as well supplies as supply them with clothes, and school accessories. In 1994 children attending this special charity groups made up 3% of all kindergarten attendees.

The number of general teaching staff that was 3747 in 1990, dropped to 2856 (by 23,7%) in 1995. (chart 4) not available

The share of teachers with professional training in the overall numbers of general teaching staff made up 80,6% in 1990, increasing up to 87,1% in 1995. (chart 5) not available

The significance of pre-school education is evident, as it aims at encouraging children to learn and study from very early years, and it provides children with some very elementary skills, by thus building background for successful study at school.

Kindergartens are defined as training and up-bringing organizations with a goal to provide children aged 3-8 with elementary education, and practical skills that are appropriate for physical and age peculiarities of children.

Up until 1990 pre-school education was associated with kindergarten activities only. Curriculum used at kindergartens involved two main parts called lessons and up-bringing activities – that is, activities aimed at "educating and developing" children attending kindergarten. This educating and up-bringing curriculum for kindergartens used to be developed and approved by the Ministry of Education, and it was required to adopt this document nation-wide. Educational curriculum consisted of such main components as speech development, counting, drawing, physical training, music, handcraft, and designing lessons, as well as health-care skill- and habit training, labour training, and playing. At that time the subjects taught at kindergartens were too many in number, namely nine different subjects. Children would have two to three lessons every day and eventually teaching would take up almost all morning time. Consequently, there was a tendency to turn kindergartens into schooling. Since 1991 the number of subjects in each kindergarten grade has been reduced to 5 along with expanding contents of such subjects as playing and labor training to cover other activities.

Teaching was teacher-centered, widely employing such methods as learning by heart and reciting simply following a pre-set curriculum. Time assigned for children’s playing was considered as out-of-lesson time or a break between lessons.

One of the aims of pre-school education is to prepare children for schooling. In our country there was no attempt during previous years to gather statistics concerning this matter. Within the framework of activities on evaluating public education, aimags and local areas have conducted a survey that revealed the following figures:

According to these data, during the period of 1990-1995 approximately 30% of all 1^st grade enrollees had previously been enrolled in pre-school education (kindergarten) and had been prepared to study at primary school. (chart 6) not available

The purpose of pre-school education is not only to pursue academic achievement in the educational field, but also to provide security, health care and food for children.

One of the main goals of child development is to cut the infant mortality rate, and provide conditions for healthy growth.

Although Mongolia has developed conditions enabling access to medical service for everyone, the mortality rate among infants and young children is still quite high. 1990 figures show that respiratory infection, pneumonia and diarrhea at the main reasons of infant mortality. (chart 7) not available

It was a question of serious concern that respiratory diseases and pneumonia caused more than 50% of all infant death cases and relatively high percentage of death cases among children over one year old. The situation could have gotten even worse if more residential clinics for nomadic mother were closed. Previously, 100% of child delivery used to occur in residential clinics but in the early nineties many were closed.

Statistics show that in 1991 the infant mortality rate was 62,7 per 1000 live births, decreasing in 1995 to 44,6. Mortality rate among children aged under 5 in 1991 was 93,8 per 1000 live births, decreasing to 62,3 in 1995. (chart 8)not available

There was a fear that with the economic conditions worsening, infant mortality rate would go up. But the actual lowering of death rates we experienced may be a result of decline in number of births. (Since 1990 the birth rate has dropped, and in 1991 it went down by 2,5%, and in 1992 decreased by 10,8% in comparison with 1990)

Although there is a scarcity of reliable sources of information on infant nutrition, research on quality of infant nutrition reveals that cases of health disorder provoked by protein-energy malnutrition, iodine deficiency, vitamin D deficiency, iron deficiency are commonly found among children due to lack of proper feeding. Another research on nutrition in Mongolia conducted in 1992 revealed that about 12% of Mongolian children suffered from underweight, 2,4% had body weight much lower than the average of his/her age level, 26% developed stunted growth, and around 2% experienced malnutrition.

The aims of government policy concerning pre-school education under the new socio-economic conditions are to increase ACCESS and improve QUALITY.

To implement this aim, the strategy has been developed to abandon a narrow understanding of pre-school education as kindergarten activities only, and to emphasize participation and support of parents, pre-school educational establishments, business entities and the wider public in the process of child-development.

Activities related to providing children with pre-school education are being implemented by alternative versions of "kindergarten-family" in rural areas and "family-kindergarten" in the countryside based on the already available resources, staff and capital and finance of kindergartens.

"The national program for pre-school education development" adopted by the Mongolian government in 1995 sets the following aims:

• To improve structure, curriculum and methodology of pre-school education
• To support private pre-schools
• To expand activities of government pre-schools
• To support home based tutoring for young children
• To pay attention to children from the most vulnerable of segments society, enabling them to enroll children in kindergartens on favorable terms
• To improve access of children from herdsmen families to pre-school education
• To build the professional capacity of pre-school personal
• To improve the supply of learning materials and toys for pre-school age children

According to the Program, the following targets will be used in evaluating the implementation of the National Program:

• To increase the number of children involved in pre-school education to over 80%
• To assure that at least 15% of all children entering first grade have had some pre-school training
• To increase the number of private pre-schools and raise the number of children attending these schools
• Improved administrative and organizational measures at the local governmental level in respect to providing children with pre-school education

The government pursues the policy of not reducing budgets of nurseries but whishes to increase their internal efficiency. (The budget of Mongolia is made up by central and local budgets, and kindergartens and nurseries are financed from the local budget.)

If the 1995 budget for kindergarten is taken as a basis, the kindergarten budget in 1998 increased 201,9%. Along with increasing the kindergarten budget each year, the share of the annual kindergarten budget in the overall local budget has remained fixed at 23% on average. (chart 9) not available

If the level of annual changes in kindergarten financing are compared to the annual inflation rates, it can be seen that kindergarten financing has been increasing each year, demonstrating a positive change in the process of securing normal operations of kindergartens. (chart 10) not available

The Mongolian Government’s activity of defining national policy regarding pre-school education and of putting this issue in the center of public and government attention raises public interest, encourages emergence of multiple financial sources, and many other initiative oriented towards assisting the expansion service area and quality of pre-school education.

The government aims not to reduce amount of capital assigned for pre-school education, and it wishes increased loans and financial aid provided by donors in the social sector devoted to right, of children to a healthy life, development, a safe environment and participation. In order to implement the pre-school program, "Strengthening pre-school education" a multi-faceted US$ 1,064,110 project (1997-2001) is being implemented within the frameworks of the "National Program of Poverty alleviation" with the support of UNDP, the British Child Support Fund, and British Fellowship program. (chart 11) not available

Renovation of pre-school education can be seen not only from its formulated strategic aims and planned activities, but from actual concrete steps taken to implement these, from a perspective of public participation and collaboration among organizations, government and people.

One of the most valuable outcomes of the renovation process is the encouragement of an active public initiative, new ways of acting and participating development.

Children from herdsmen families leading a nomadic way of life make up the social group where pre-school education service is hard to obtain. Many different activities aimed at involving children form herdsmen families in pre-school education are being implemented in the Mongolian countryside.

To drive the pre-school service closer to herdsmen family children mobile ger-kindergartens and community types of training are run during the warm seasons of summer with the help of local population and local governments. Because this type of training does not require big expenses, moreover, it adjusts its activities to herdsmen families, to their local area and lifestyle, it builds up favourable conditions for herdsmen family children to be involved in pre-school service, and encouragies willingness among herdsmen parents to have their children involved. In most cases the costs for a ger or a mobile training center (a railroad car) are paid by local government or herdsmen. Teachers are paid from national budget. Teachers usually bring their families and stock to stay with herdsmen throughout summer and conduct training. In some cases teacher’s meal provisions are made by herdsmen. Handbooks, textbooks and teaching materials are provided by the school or kindergarten.

This type of training was first established in Mongolia within the framework of "Informal education of school drop-out children" project that started in 1994 with the aid from UNICEF. It has spread in many places, and with the assistance of UNDP and British Child Support Fund it is being run in almost all aimags in Mongolia.

"Mother Uulen’s school"

Cities and towns in our country have preserved some traditional look in combination with modern characteristics. There are many families still living in traditional ger type of accommodation in the outskirts of cities, and because of low capacity of kindergartens in the outskirts in some areas with dense population many children have no opportunities to be enrolled in pre-school education.

To prepare those children not involved in pre-school education service for school enrolment in one of the outskirts districts of Ulaanbaatar city was established "Mother Uulen’s school" by the initiative of an experienced teacher. During its first year of operation this establishment enrolled more than 1000 children aged 6-7. A non-government organization and Children’s Rights Center together with British Child Support Fund supported this type of training and supplied it with required teaching/learning materials and textbooks. Parents whose children were enrolled in this training paid some small amount of money to voluntary teachers and bought textbooks for their children by established prices. "Mother Uulen’s school" initiative gained support and financial aid from different business entities and organizations ("Mother Uulen" company, Mongolian Valuable Security company), district authorities, International Ladies’ Organization, World Women’s Association for Peace, which helped to spread this training into more than 40 places, and enrolled 4963 children in 2 years.

This "Mother Uulen’s school" method of training aimed at involving into training children from poor families lining in the outskirts of cities and aimag centers is being used widely, and has so far included more than 5000 children from low income families into its activities. It makes up about 7% of all the children attending kindergartens. These children’s meal provision is paid from state budget and donations made by children’s organizations and business entities. Research reveals that in case of children are attending kindergartens through charity, their parents’ employment rates doubles.

"Parents are the first teachers" program aimed at providing support for home-training of young children from vulnerable communities of the society has been implemented for 3 years now in 3 community areas of one Ulaanbaatar districts and in Bulgan aimag with the support of World Vision organization. The peculiarity of the project is embedded in the fact that voluntary mobile teaching staff conducts direct work with each individual parent from the vulnerable community who are isolated from the society. Parents of 400 children have been enrolled in the program, and as result of training 80 % of parents improved their care for own children, and cases of diseases among children dropped twice in comparison with the previous year. Moreover, based on the family’s resources, economic status and socio-psychological peculiarities, mobile teaching staff developed their hope for better life, and as a result, families started leading the active struggle for their own life. Thanks to this effort, 75 % of families were able to change their lifestyle and overcome poverty, now gaining the capacity to live independently.

The world Vision organization initiated the establishment of the "ger-nursery" for young children from extremely poor families in one of the outskirts districts of Ulaanabaatar with the aim to promote care and development of young children. This initiative made by the World Vision organization helped to attract the attention of the wider public into care and development of young children. To make parents understand that their role in taking care and promoting development of young children is most important, providing them assistance and teaching practical skills are the principles that the "ger-nursery " builds its activities upon. For instance, such multiple-sided activities as training for parents and families, constant periodic control of children’s growth and mother-and-child’s health conditions, vaccination, knowledge about nutritional quality of food, collaborating groups aimed at raising women’s income, learning some practical skills, etc are viewed as one complex measure. Parents exercise an ultimate right to visit the classrooms and participate in training practices of children’s care-taking, observe the teacher-child relationship, provide external control, give advices, exchange experience, learn and express one’s ideas freely. The classroom door is always open for the parents. The fact from this experiment that families start having hope for their children’s future, and devote all their physical, mental and intellectual abilities to work would serve as one fine example to illustrate the notion that parents from poor families understand their duties as soon as they start exercising their rights. 70% of parents involved in the program are engaged in service or work in order to increase the family’s income. It is perceived that if parents are taught skills to sustain living, the solution of issue related to development of young children would be found.

It is more favourable to teach parents some practical skills rather than teach then how to take care of young children. This method was first tried out at the above-mentioned "Mother Uulen’s school". In the morning or in the afternoon parents would come to kindergarten with their children, be served by hot tea or other drinks for reasonable prices, then get involved in training related to family planning, sanitary conditions, water hygiene, treatment of child’s dermatological diseases, as well as receive training on kindergarten activities and have an opportunity to be introduced to the kindergarten activity. When parents have knowledge and skills they will be able to communicate with their children in a proper way and sense their duty of taking care of them.

With an intention to introduce the experience from these programs, teaching practice sessions of students from Teacher Training colleges engaged in pre-service training of kindergarten teacher were organized at these centers, as well as training for city and countryside teachers, doctors and nurses working with children under 3 years old.

Expanding the service area of pre-school education in the form of home care by upgrading parents’ education through use of public media would be appropriate way for our country with thin population density, where 70% of all pre-school age children are being brought up at home.

Herdsmen families are especially hard to reach, with only 10,4% owning TV sets, a 61% having radios. All families in urban areas have TV sets and radios.

Public and free TV and radio channels run programs for parents related to family training, child growth and mother-and-child health, food, alimentation, practical skills, as well as entertaining, competition, mind-maze, training and cognitive programs designed for children with account of their age and psychological peculiarities. Out of 760 hour-programs transmitted by Mongolian TV more than 50% are devoted for pre-school age children.

Since the end of 1990s a decision was made to be followed at policy level to abandon the policy of separating disabled children in our social organization, providing them with special simplified curriculum and simplified methodology; instead, they can be developed to appropriate level with the help of other normal children. The project aimed at trying out the curriculum, organization of training and teaching methods so that the is integrated training of disabled and normal children at kindergartens. The new policies were implemented in 4 kindergartens in Ulaanbaatar, Arkhnagai and Bulgan aimags.

Results of this project were able to give answers to many question: how to provide disabled children with equal opportunities in normal conditions, to work out methodology that enables the evaluation of the development of these children, how to train the pedagogical staff in special teaching techniques, how to provide psychological support for parents and care-takers of those children, how to collaborate with them by making them understand that they have possibilities to develop in the same way as other children, and how to make adults working in the area of kindergarten and other children attending the same kindergarten understand that disabled children have hopes and dreams and the same rights like any other child does. This method of integrated training of disabled children is now being spread to many kindergartens and child-care centers.

In a situation when only 25% out of 125 thousand 6-7 year-olds are enrolled in kindergartens it is necessary to find other ways of involving children of the named age group into activities of preparation for school. In 1995 the Educational Board of Ulaanbaatar city with the assistance of British Children Support Fund conducted at 15 kindergartens activities related to trying out possibilities of expanding the accessibility of pre-school education by making the kindergarten organization more flexible.

This experiment revealed that when one kindergarten group for 6-7 year-older originally was able to enroll 25 children, by organizing shift groups this number could be brought up to 50. Shift groups is a form of organizing training when, besides principal kindergarten groups, there are other groups that receive part-time training in the same facility for a period of 45 day to 3 months. This type of training is conducted through help of and collaboration with parents and other members of the family, who are supplied with handbooks related to child development, preparing the child for school, and other teaching/learning materials and guidelines.

Because this type of training not only expanded the availability of pre-school education, but also gained wide support from parents and public, the number of this kind of kindergartens was increased to 45 the following year. Eventually some aimags started to provide similar kind of training adjusted to local conditions and peculiarities.

In 1998 the Open Society Institution of Mongolia (Soros Foundation) provided support to start at 20 groups of 20 different kindergartens Step by Step program by the Open Society Institution and International Organization of Child Resources.

The Step by Step program has become one more effort and example in spreading and developing such teaching methods as considering each child’s peculiarities, and consequently, using a different approach in developing children at pre-school age, giving them an opportunity to make choices and make decisions, increasing parents and public participation in training activities, changing teacher’s role from "an information-provider" toward "children’s assistant in their learning", and developing non-differentiating approaches to disabled children.

Activities directed toward implementing aims and objectives set by the Mongolian government in regard to pre-school education have brought in changes that resulted from

• new range of activities in the pre-school educational sector
• Initiative and participation of governmental and non-governmental organizations as well as the wider public
• active co-operation with foreign countries and international organizations to secure the financial support for the Program

The above-mentioned changes include

1. Number of children enrolled in early childhood care and development program has shown a tendency to increase

A. Number of children enrolled in kindergartens (per year) (chart 12)

B. Number of children enrolled early childhood development programs (chart 13)

Benefited from the new form of activities (such as visiting teachers, family training, short-term training) being developed for the last few years, pre-school education has started changing its services to satisfy the educational needs of children and interests of general public. These enables us to improve the quality of service and to widen the service area in order become available to different communities of Mongolian society.

C. Share of children who had received pre-school education among the first-grade enrollees is increasing (chart 14) not available

A. In 1998 investment targeted at improving and strengthening learning environment at kindergartens reached 59% of the total investment provided for the project "Strengthening pre-school education". This means that this project was able to involve 66% of all the kindergartens. (Chart 16)not available

In 1998 the project "Strengthening pre-school education’ involved 66% all kindergartens.

• Improvement of professional skills of kindergarten teaching staff (chart 17) not available

In 1999, 55% of all kindergarten teaching staff received in-service training.

B. Share of teaching staff with professional training in the total number of general teaching staff (chart 18) not  available

The following are the results that come out of efforts to change teaching methods and methodology of kindergarten training, and experimental activities to spread the "child-centered" teaching method:

• All teachers to some extent have adopted a new teaching methods and technology that enables an active participation of children in the learning process, in contrast to an old way of teaching, now being rejected, when teacher provided learners with ready materials.
• By building a child-friendly learning environment that meets the needs and supports the interests of young children, besides fulfilling distance requirements, we have become able to organize teaching learning process in a more effective way and build up environment for further development of children.
• As a result of improving content capacity of the curriculum, and making it more open and flexible we were able to set up more opportunities for out-of–classroom training.

Advantages:

• Since 1995, enrollment to pre-school education has been continuously increased.
• Number of children enrolled in pre-school education apart from kindergarten has grown
• Percentage of first graders with kindergarten education is being constantly increased.
• Provision of teachers with certificate is sufficient and in-service teacher training activity has reached the necessary level.
• Projects have been implemented to provide non-formal education besides kindergartens

By donor and non-governmental organizations’ support.

• New instructional methods and methodologies are being developed.
• Government policy on pre-school education has been modified

Disadvantages:

• Enrollment in pre-school education is still inadequate.
• Lack of of proper structure for enrollment of children from cattle herders and poor families in urban areas.
• Financial constraints.
• Lack of favorable instructional environment in rural kindergartens.
• Low percentage of private kindergartens.
• Parent and community participation is inadequate
• Domination of the academic side in curriculum is still exists.

In perspective, as a mid-term aim, we will work to strengthen independent pre-school educational system, to secure achievements of previous years, and continue renovation of activities.

• To raise involvement in pre-school education by 40% in comparison with current situation
• To improve content, methods of teaching and form of providing pre-school education, to improve and develop learning environment and conditions in accordance with these changes, to upgrade teachers’ professional skills
• To support active participation of family, parents and non-government organization in pre-school educational process, and in this way, improve the quality of pre-school education.

CHAPTER 2-PRIMARY EDUCATION

Mongolian education has thousands of years, of history and great tradition. Thanks to the 1921 People’s Revolution, the modern system of education was fully established in Mongolia. The Mongolian education system has been developed through government policies, which suited the requirements of specific periods of development.

Literacy campaign started from the 1920s, and the policy to give all citizens primary education came into action in 1940s. Since 1961 the policy to give all citizens basic education has been implemented. By 1990, 96% of the population had become literate, and 62% had obtained primary education.

Since 1990 Mongolia has started changes directed toward to participation in world economic activities by peacefully transitioning into democracy and adopting principles and activities of a free market. These rapid changes created difficulties and hardships involving the whole education system.

The 1990s introduced the renovation period of the country’s social system and positive steps of renewing social and education systems were undertaken. The difficulties and handicaps were many, but these were under by he reformers.

The Mongolian Government has been implementing policies to maintain the achievement of the past, but also to renew the education system in connection with the new social and economic goals and to establish the basis for further stable development.

The Government Policy on Education is based on the values and principles of humanitarian and democratic society, such as setting social conditions to enjoy the rights of education for everyone, providing with rights of education without discrimination, giving Mongolian citizens free compulsory basic education, treating access to all educational institutions equally regardless of income or property, etc.

Mongolian secondary education has the structure of 4+4+2.

The structure of secondary education (Chart 1)

Although the entranced age for primary schools is 8, 6 or 7-year-olds can enroll the schools, if they meet certain requirements.

In connection with enrolling 6 or 7-year-old children in school, the strategy of changing Mongolian secondary education system into a 12-year structure, which will suit the world standard, is being worked out during 2000-2005.

The economic condition of Mongolia started to decline in the late-1980s and it led to a social and economic crisis, which influenced negatively the quantity and quality of primary education. The 86,1% gross enrolment rate primary education in 1990 and net enrolment rate of 72.5%, indicate that a quarter of children were out of school.

In 1998 the gross enrolment rate of primary school reached 103%, increased by 16.1% and net enrolment rate reached 93.8%, increased by 18.6% from the 1990 rate. 1998 gross and net enrolment rate reached the level of other high-ranking, other high-training countries. (Compared with 1994 index /110; 93/) (Chart 19) not available

However, if we consider city and countryside by using the above-mentioned indexes, the situation is different. While the net intake rate in the city or big settlements is relatively high (90% total and by gender) in the countryside the net intake rate is 20% less by total and gender. (Chart 20) not available

Furthermore, while the net intake rate of female is comparatively high in both the city and the countryside, 1/3 of the male pupils in the countryside did not attend school at the normal age of enrolment.

If we look at the changes of the gross and net intake rate between 1990 and 1998, the indexes go down between 1990and 1992, go up between 1992 and 1995, and started to be stable from 1995. (Chart 21) One of the factors affecting attendance is dropout.

Dropout increased dramatically in the first years of transition and has decreased recently. The changing primary education structure may have affected dropout’s figures. (Chart 23) not available

The primary school was changed into 6+2+2 model in 1990. In 1992-1993 academic year the education structure was changed again to the former 3+5+2 structure and the percentage of primary school dropouts in 1992-1993 academic year covered only pupils of 1-3rd grade. The indexes from 1993 to 1998 have covered pupils of 1-4th grade according to the present 4+4+2 structure. The attempts to change the school structure affected the school activities and influenced the quality of teaching negatively.

In connection with the privatization, which started from 1990, the countryside herdsmen began to own animals and because of the workforce shortage many children started to drop out their schools. The correlation, according to which the aimags’ are listed by their gross school enrolment and number of their animals, shows that the countryside or remote aimags (Dundgobi, Bayankhongor, Zavkhan, Uvurkhangai), that lead the list by their number of animals, have less enrolment, while big settlements (Orkhon, Ulaanbaatar, Darkhan-Uul, Selenge), lead the list by their enrolment rate with few animals. (Chart 24)

The increased number of animals due to privatization raised the herdsmen’s interest in making boys work in animal husbandry. According to the gender indexes of the dropouts at that period more than 70% were boys.

Dormitories (Boarding school) are one specific feature of our country. For our country, which has a nomadic way of life, the basic traditional method of involving herdsmen children in education was to build dormitories for aimag or ‘sum’ schools and to pay for the pupils’ food expenses from the government. During the years of transition to the market economy system the possibility to finance dormitories was limited, and as the result many of the dormitories have been closed. Another reason for the decreased number of pupils living in dormitories is the meat allocation for the family (the meat allocation varied according to the number of the children living in a dormitory from a family). While the percentage of pupils living in dormitories were 14.5% in 1990, it went down to 4.1% in 1996. (Chart 25) not available