Table 6. Indicative Annual per Pupil Costs of a Reasonable Primary Education, 1998

Note: The estimates assume the following:

1. the estimated capital costs are annualised based on the economic life of the assets (20 years

Source: Development Solutions for Africa, 1998

The Phase I columns in Table 7 show that in order to satisfy the indicative cost in Table 6 without increasing the household contribution, international donors (multilateral and bilateral, and NGOs) would need to meet about three fifths of the cost of primary education in Somalia. Recognising that this situation, which in proportional terms (as opposed to the actual expenditures) reflects current sources, is both undesirable and unsustainable in the long-term, the donor community hankers for developments leading to a setting in which the bulk of educational costs are met from local resources. The three two-year phases in Table 7 and Figure d summarise donor thinking as to how the financing of the unit costs in Table 6 could re-balanced such that by year 2003 internal resources (community and public) meet 92% of the costs while external resources cover the remaining 8%.

The re-balancing of the financing of education, though not based on firm and detailed planning, is benefiting from agency and INGO efforts to cultivate Somali ownership of the education development process through (a) promotion of community education committees (CECs) to take responsibility for mobilising resources for schools at the community level and taking charge of the management of the institutions; (b) working with emerging governance organs at the district, regional and zonal levels to raise the proportion of public revenue allocated to education; and (c) building on traditional mutual social responsibility to promote civil society so as to expand educational opportunities to the needy. Some success is being achieved. For instance, in response to the 1998/99 school survey questionnaire, out of 633 schools with valid data 574 (91%) reported that they had CECs. However, the lack of viable governance organs in many parts of Somalia is a major hindrance. Moreover, the re-balancing of the financing of education is likely to be constrained by a set of demand and supply issues, including the following:

• Raising the community share of financing primary education is likely to exacerbate inequity in the provision. The $33.07 (80% of the unit cost) that, by year 2003, the community should be paying is about 19% of GNP per capita (estimated to be $176- see 1.3 above). A significant proportion of Somali households is unlikely to afford this level of contribution to primary education.
• Even among households who can afford the intended share, the demand for the education on offer may be weak. Demand is likely to be dampened by societal perceptions that primary education does not automatically confer a distinct advantage. These perceptions are associated, inter alia with constrained educational opportunities at the second and third levels, a depressed labour market for the educated, and presence of models of apparent success (such as armed militiamen) with no formal education.
• The human resource capacity for successfully planning and implementing change in the Somali education sphere is weak, both in technical and psychosocial terms. The technical aspects are being and will continue to be addressed through relevant training and provision of relevant technologies. The psycho-social aspect is much more difficult to address as it requires complex transformations within society and official cadres (such as educational planners / managers and teachers) with regard to issues such as (a) the undesirability of dependency (whether on external donors or on the state); (b) individual rights and duties to society; (c) role of civil society; (d) the advantages of a planning and management culture based on the cause and effect paradigm that regards systematic data and information as crucial in key activities.

Table 7. Indicative Financing of Annual per Pupil Costs (in US Dollars)

Source: Development Solutions for Africa, 1998