To spread early childhood care and development activities including promoting social assistance for poor children who cannot afford the cost of education.

1) The total enrollment rates in early childhood programs for children (public and private programs) between the age of 3 to 5.

2) The percentage of children enrolling in the first class of basic education after having taken part in early childhood care programs.

Chart nr.1 gives a clear idea about the enrollment rates in preschool classes.

The numbers in chart n.1 reflect an increase in the numbers of children enrolling in preschool. This number rose from 9847 children (boys and girls) in 90/91 to 12482 in 98/99. This quantitative progress remains however insufficient compared to the population growth of the same group age.

In 1990, the total rates of children enrolled in preschool had not reached 1%. they came following this gradually increasing order: 0.656% for girls, 0.683% for girls and boys and 0.709% for boys only.

These rates are extremely low and the best one does not exceed 0.6%.

These low rates do not accurately reflect the preschool situation in all the districts since preschools are not, in fact, available in all the districts neither in all the departments of these districts. They are only available in districts for children of employees working for public or private institutions who provide nurseries for their female employees to place their children while they are working. Moreover preschools are only available in big cities and in the capital where the appropriate resources are available.

Thus, if we forget the total rates and examine the rates in each district, we will notice a great disparity between one district and another both concerning the number of preschools and the number of enrolled children.

In Taaz, which is a large trade city, the enrollment rates of children in preschools has not reached 0.5%, 0.252% for boys and girls, 0.172% for girls only and 0.332% for boys only.

On the other hand, the enrollment rates of children in Eden in highly encouraging since it has reached 10%. In fact, Eden scored the best rates in 1990 where enrollment rates reached 16.139% for boys and girls, 16.377% for boys only and 15.900% for girls only. The primary reason for that is that preschools in Eden are public and attract thus more people.

In general, the total enrollment rates of girls were not worse than boys’. In 1990, the enrollment rate for girls reached 0.556% or almost 0.7%. It is extremely close to that of the boys which reached 0.709% or almost 0.7%.

To compare the enrollment rates of boys and girls in the following years we examine the following chart:

The parity ratio between boys and girls differed from one district to the other. In Taaz, it reached the lowest ratio of 0.5 while in other districts it exceeded 1. In El Mohra for instance this ratio reached 1.3 (1.22) in the girls advantage.

In the same year, the national parity ratio reached 0.9 (89.6%) in the boys advantage.

In some districts, this ratio exceeded the national results while in others it did not. The districts which exceeded the national ratio are: Hadramout (92.3%), Abin (95.9%) and El Mohra (121.8%) . The other districts which did not go beyond this national percentage are: El Hadideh (0.787), Shebouh (0.759), the capital (0.758), Lahj (0.753) and Taaz (0.525).

We also find that the parity indicators in the years following 1990 on a national level differed between one year and another as it is shown in chart B.

Chart B shows that the parity indicators exceeded 80% and that the highest 96.9%, was in 1992 whereas the lowest was 81.5 in 1996.

It also shows that the girls indicators ration as per the general total evolved around 40%, the highest was registered in 1992 with 1,9,2 whereas he lowest was registered in 1996 with 44.9%.

The parity indicators almost reaches 1 especially if the numbers are rounded up to the nearest decimal number. The indicator of 1998 which is 0.828 becomes 1 for instance and so on .

If we follow the figures of the years pertaining to the first chart, we notice that the numbers of children enrolled in public preschools affiliated to the ministry of education exceed by far the numbers of children enrolled in private preschools pr preschools related to local associations.

In 1990 the number of children enrolled in public preschools reached 8094 boys and girls whereas the number of children enrolled in private preschools reached 1753. In 1995, the former reached 6286 and the latter 4881.

As for the percentage of children enrolled in public or private schools, they are as follows:

In 1990 82% enrolled in public preschools and 18% in private preschools,

in 1995 the former percentage reached dropped to 56% while the latter rose to 44%.

Chart C clearly demonstrates that the number of children (boys and girls) who enroll in public preschools exceeds those enrolled in private ones. This difference in numbers and percentages is due to many reasons of which the following:

1. The tuition fees in public preschools are lower than those in private ones.

2- The public preschools are better equipped in terms of buildings, staff and curricula than private ones.

3- Public preschools offer more incentives, alike food and health, than private ones.

The above mentioned chart shows the high percentages of girls in public preschools. In 1990, the percentage of girls in public preschools reached 85 % while it reached only 15%. The best rate for girls in private preschools was recorded in 1995 with 43% compared with all children enrolled.

The enrollment rates shown in chart (1) were based on the following:

The number of children enrolled in preschool.

The total number of children from the same age group in the districts or on a national level.

Thus the rates were extremely law for the following reasons:

1. Children enrolled in preschools in the capitals of some districts. However, the rates were calculated by dividing the number of children enrolled on the total number of children from the same age group on the district notwithstanding if the district has children enrolled in all the cities or not. This is why the final result does not reflect the reality.
2. The rates pertaining to each district were calculated by dividing the number of children enrolled on the total number of children in the district from the same age group (3-5) not with standing whether the children are from rural or urban areas.
3. The population in the urban areas constitute 25% of the whole population. If there were data pertaining to the age group (3-5) in urban areas, the results would have changed. Moreover, if there were data available concerning the cities where the preschools are, the results would have been better.

For instance if the data were calculated according to:

- The number of children enrolled in preschools divided on the numbers

of children living in urban areas, in districts containing preschools the results would have been as follows:

* In 1990: nb of children enrolled preschools = 9847 = 2.766 nb of children living in urban areas (3-5) 355984

or approximately 1compared to 0.603 in chart (1) or around 1%:

* In 1995: 11167 = 2.797 or approximately 3 compared to 690 or 1%. / 399380

3. In 1998: 12482 = 2.818 or approximately 3 compared to 0.696 or 1%. / 442863

Moreover if the data were calculated according to the number of children enrolled in preschools divided on the number of children living in urban areas in districts containing preschools the results would have been as follow:

* In 1990: nb of children enrolled in preschools = 9847

nb of children in urban areas with preschools 157900

* In 1994: 9775 = 5.6% / 174615

* In 1998: 12482 = 308%. / 326787

If the data were calculated by dividing the number of children enrolled on the children living in the capitals of districts containing preschools according to the census of 1994, the indicators will certainly increase.

On a national level for instance, the rate will be

9775=4.8comparedto0.61% / 202220

As for the districts the rates will be as follows:

Shebwa: 832 = 77.6%. / 1072

Abin : 732 = 67%. / 1067

El- Mohra : 438 = 56%. / 778

Hadramout: 1830 = 21.6% / 8465

ahej : 228 = 11.9%. / 1901

Eden : 3443 = 10.8%. / 31872

As for chart (2) the following can be deduced:

In 90/91, the number of children enrolled in the 1^st grade of basic education after having attended development programs for early childhood. reached 11500 boys and girls (5902 boys and 5598 girls). The rate of children enrolled in the first grade of basic education reached 3.3% the enrollment rate of boys reached 2.4% whereas that of girls reached 5.5%.

In 1998, the number of children enrolled after having attended early childhood programs reached 13 367 (73222 boys and 6045 girls). The percentage of registered children. in the first grade. from both genders was about 3%. As for the percentage of males and females. they respectively reached 2.8% and 3.4%.

When comparing year 1998 with 1990. we can notice an increase in the number of males and females from the initial rates of 1990/91. Actually. the increase between these two years reached 1897 students. at the rate of 16.5% with an average annual increase of 2.1%.

The rise in the number of males varied from 2.4% in 1990 to 2.8% in 1998. while it decreased for females from 5.5% in 1990 to 3.4% in 1998. The total rate for both genders decreased from 3.3% in 1990 to 3% in 1998.

The parity ratio reached 2.3 in 1990/91 while it decreased to 1.2 in 1998.

According to all these indicators. it is possible to state that the interest in such a field is still below hopes. due to many factors. Above all. the increasing growth of population which reaches 3.7% in general and more in the (3-5) age group due to the attention and health care provided to this category. The proof is the decrease of the death ratio of children below 5 in Yemen. from 340 in 1960 to 110 in 1995⁽¹⁾ .

- The continuous rise of the population from (3-5) age group is not balanced by an increase of institutions for children care because of the lack of resources in Yemen and of the marginal of the private sector especially in this field of education.

Moreover, there is a concentration of the existing institutions exclusively in capitals of some districts and a total lack in others alike small towns and rural areas.

- The low level of family income and the high fees and expenses for children institutions hinder the registration of children into these institutions. In fact, the personal income compared to the Gross National Product is of 37 340 Ryal⁽²⁾ while average scholar fees are of 15 000 Ryal for primary education. In addition, some of the private institutions require that fees be paid in USD⁽³⁾ .

The UNICEF research on scholar expenses pertaining to "the situation of children in the world- p. 93" proved it is a major problem for poor families, even when they do not have to pay school charges.

- The increase of registration fees and expenses are the reason of dropouts of children from institutions of early childhood care. as shown by surveys done by UNICEF: "There are other expenses paid by families for the registration of children in educational institutions alike books. equipment. costume. transportation. food. in addition to the loss of the income provided by the child".

These facts might apply to our case; as well as the lack of the sense of responsibility. the lack of official information and the absence of social support for this kind of education as well as the weak political support for institutions and the absence of strategies and programs. In addition, too many parties are concerned with too little coordination or none at all. There is also no planning to study facts and set projects for the future. All these reasons probably hindered the development of basic education and decreased the participation in its programs regardless of its importance. Which certainly affects its improvement and development.

7-2- spreading enrollment in basic education institutions and completing it by the beginning of year 2000.

The percentage of the newly enrolled in the first grade of basic education in comparison with those who reached schooling age.

(4) Net admission average The percentage of newly enrolled persons in the first grade of primary education at schooling age in comparison with the total population number.

Chart three shows that the total number of registered in the first grade of basic education from both genders reached 346 275 students of all ages in the scholar year 90-91.

Among them 243 637 males and 102 638 females.

While the number of new students at the official schooling age (6 years) reached 285 82, 191 756 among them were males and only 94 067 females.

On the other hand, the number of people in the mentioned age group (6 years) from both genders reached 0453 486 among them 231 672 males and 0221 814 females.

The apparent average of admission for both genders reached 76.4% while the net admission rate reached 63.0%. The apparent admission rate of males reached 105.2% and of females 46.3%. Actually, the real net average of admissions was 82.8% for males and 42.4% for females.

The number of students of all ages enrolled reached 422 279 among whom 279 995 males and only 142 284 females.

The number of new students having reached the official schooling age (6 years) of both genders reached 340 772 students of whom 212 153 males and only 128 619 females. The population in the mentioned age group (6) for the same year reached 507.423 among whom 255.355 males and 252.068 females.

Thus, the apparent rate of admissions for both genders was 83.2%: 109.6% for males and 56.4% for females.

As in regards to the net admission rate, it reached 67.2% for both genders: 83.1% for males and only 51% for males.

When comparing the apparent and the net rates of admissions between 90/91 and 95/96, we can notice:

The total number of newly registered students from both genders of all ages in the first grade of basic education reached 439 573 students, 261 022 males and 178 551 females.

Meanwhile, the population at the age of 6 reached 546584, 275 606 males and 270 978 females.

The apparent rate of admissions for both genders reached 80.4%; 94.7% for males and 65.9% for females.

When comparing the apparent rate of admissions between 95/96 and 98/99, it appears that there is a decrease in the apparent rate of admissions for both genders while this rate increased for females.

When studying the parity ratio between both genders, in 90/91, we notice that it reached 0.4 for the apparent admission rate and 0.5 for the net admission rate. In 95/96, the parity ratio for apparent admissions reached 0.5 while it reached 0.6 for net admissions.

This indicates a slight improvement of the level of apparent and net admission rates for females. In 1998/99, the parity ratio of the two genders reached 0.7 for the total average of admissions and did not show for apparent admission rates which proves that females are having better opportunities of getting basic education.

Chart (4) shows the total registration and the net registration rates for the first phase of basic education (from 1-6) (regardless age) for the year 90/91. The number of registered students in the first phase (grades 1-6) of all ages reached 1 846 484; among them 1 367 560 males and 478 924 females.

The number of registered students from the age group (6-11) from both genders reached 1 376 290, 991 261 for males and 385 029 for females.

While the size of the population from the concerned age group (6-11) from both genders reached 2 501 830, 1 282 869 males and 1 218 961 females for the same year 90/91.

The apparent registration rate for both genders reached 73.8%: 106.6% for males and 39.3% for females.

The net registration rate reached 55% for both genders, 77.3% for males and 31.6% for females. The parity ratio between both genders reached 0.4 for both apparent and net rates.

The number of registered student of all ages in the first phase of basic education – grade (1-6)- reached 2 214 868 students, 1 548 790 males and 666 078 females.

As in regards to the total number of registered students from the 6-11 age group for the same phase (1-6), it reached 1 965 258 students, 1 146 203 males and only 549 055 females.

The size of the population of the same age group for both genders was 2 858 359, 1 449 563 males and 1 408 796 females.

Meanwhile, the parity ratio between both genders as in regards to the total registration rate in the first phase of basic education reached 0.5.

When referring to chart 4, we can observe that the number of registered students for all the phase of basic education (1-9) of all ages reached 2 069 171 for both genders, 1 552 114 males and 517 027 females.

As in regards to the registered students in 6-14 age group, their number reached 1 636 612, 1 205 212 males and only 431 400 females.

In the scholar year (90/91), population of that age for both genders reached 3 027 224; among them 1 306 239 males and 1 720 985 females.

The global registration rate reached 68.4% for both genders; 118.8% for males and 30% for females.

As for the net registration rate for both genders, it reached 54.1%, 92.3% for males and 25.1% for females.

The parity ratio between both genders reached 0.3 for the global and net registration rates.

The total number of registered students - in the same phase (from all ages) reached 2 864 934, 2 039 148 males and 825 786 females.

The number of registered students from (6-14) age group reached 2 188 820, 1 529 290 males and 659 530 females.

The population of the mentioned age group (6-14) reached 4 107 127, 2 090 692 males and 2 016 435 females.

The global registration rate for both genders reached 69.8%, 97.5% for males and 41% for females.

As in regards to the net registration rate, it reached 53.3% for both genders, 73.1% for males and 32.7% for females.

The parity ratio between both genders reached 0.4 for global and net registration rates alike.

When comparing the years 95/96 to 98/99, we notice a decrease in the global and net registration rates for males and a rise for these two rates for females, as the (net) annual growth rate reached 1.5% for females while the (global growth) annual rate reached 2.2 for them. Meanwhile, the parity ratio between both genders rose by 0.1 for the same period.

The total number of registered students (of all ages) for the first phase (1-9) reached 2 959 134 students; 1 978 410 males and 980 724 females.

The population of the corresponding age group (6-14) was 4 353 957 persons, among them 2 220 625 males and 2 173 350 females.

Comparing to the population of the age group (6-14) the global registration rate for both genders reached 67.3%, 89.1% for males of the same age bracket and only 45.1% of the females.

It is worth mentioning that the global registration rate for males decreased compared to year 95/96, while the global registration rate for females increased.

The parity ratio between both genders increased from 0.4 in 95/96 to 0.5 in 98/99.

This indicates that females are having more opportunities to enroll in basic education, despite the gap between the two genders - in favor for males.

The government endeavors to reach a balance between males and females through multiplying the opportunities for females to have access and finish basic education^*.

Indicator (7): the percentage of public expenses on basic education of the gross national product, and per student of the GNP per person.

Indicator (8): the percentage of public expenses on basic education as compared to public expenses on education.

Calculating indicators (7) and (8) is not an easy task because accurate numbers pertaining to expenses on basic education from the general budget of the government (the actual budget) are not available. The reason is that the general budget and the budget allocated to the Ministry of education are not distributed according to the phases of general education but rather to other basis regardless if these expenses are allocated to the ministry or to basic, secondary and technical education.

Therefore, we supposed that the actual percentage of expenses spent on basic education from the total expenses spent on education is 80% and 20% on secondary education and its branches. We supposed as well that this percentage stays the same in the years following 90/91 and that the variable is the actual budget of the state i.e. the current budget for the Ministry of Education. Thus, column (2) of chart (5) is an estimated evaluation while columns (3) to (6) are exact.

1) the public expenses on basic education as a percentage of the gross national product were 3.6% in 90/9. In 95/96, this percentage increased to 4.7%. In 97/98 it decreased slightly to 4.4%.

2) As in regards to the current public expenses on basic education for students as a percentage of the gross national product by person, it was 18% in year 90/91. This rate increased in year 95/96 to 20% and remained at 20% for 97/98.

These percentages are not low compared to those in countries with conditions similar to those in Yemen.

On the contrary, in some countries, economic conditions are better than those in Yemen, since they are going through economic and administrative reforms. This proves that the Yemeni government is giving increasing attention to basic education.

We hope that this attention will increase in the coming decade with the aim of improving the quality of education and that the strategies and plans for developing education will be well implemented to provide education for all.

As in regards to indicator (8) in chart (5) pertaining to current public expenses on basic education as a percentage of the total current expenses on education, we previously mentioned that it is not a simple task to define the budget for each phase of general education separately.

Therefore, by studying the final calculations of the Ministry of Finances and the Ministry of Education, we supposed that the percentage for year 90/91 was 80%. This rate remains the same for the years 95/96 and 97/98 with a 2% margin of change. This number is more accurate if we refer to the current budget allocated by the government to education which reaches 18%, i.e. the highest percentage allocated to any sector.

This is a proof that the government gives priority to education.

The training of teachers for basic education has always been a national concern since basic education is the basis of the general education hierarchy. Real attention has been thus withdrawn to provide teachers for this phase and use various educational means of which:

Despite the extension of education faculties in all the Districts of the republic, there is still a lack in the number of teachers qualified to teach in this level, especially in remote and rural areas.

Moreover those holding the primary, preparatory and unified (basic) diploma of the old system work as well in this phase, in addition to graduates from technical, vocational institutions and intermediate institutes as well as holders of baccalaureates diplomas.

Referring to chart (M-1) concerning the distribution of teachers for basic education (only) according to qualifications (educational or not) and gender, we can notice that:

The distribution on gender basis shows what follows:

Female teachers who are qualified from the educational point of view are 14% while those educationally unqualified represent 6.8%. Educationally qualified male teachers represent 60.3%. while unqualified male teachers represent 18.8%.

Percentages of teachers for basic education (educationally qualified or unqualified and unknown)

Distribution of teachers

according to situations (urban rural) and to gender for year 98/99

Chart (M - 2) shows the following:

The percentage of qualified and unqualified teachers in rural areas reaches 69.4% for both genders, of which 49% males and 4% females from educationally qualified teachers.

In urban areas, educationally unqualified teachers reach 30.4%, (among them 11.5% educationally qualified males and 10.7% educationally qualified females).

As for the educationally unqualified teachers, their percentage reached 17.2% for both genders together: 15% for males and 2.4% for females at the rural scale. As in regards to urban areas, this percentage reached 8.4% for both genders together: 4% for males and 4.5% for females.

The same chart shows that there are more female teachers in urban areas than in rural ones, since the percentage of educationally qualified female teachers in urban areas reached 10.7% with 4.5% of unqualified female teachers.

This requires an increase of efforts to develop training of female teachers in rural areas in order to increase their number and expand girls education in rural areas.

Referring to chart (M - 3), it is possible to notice that efforts to hire Yemeni teachers were fruitful, since the percentage of foreign teachers decreased from 32.7% in 90/91 to 3.3% in 98/99.

Chart (M - 5) indicates the following:

In the basic phase, there were in 90/91, 1/36 (teacher / students). In 98/99, this rate rose to 1/22.

When comparing both indicators, we notice an obvious improvement of the national criteria determined as 1/45 (teacher / students).

Nevertheless, this indicator does not reflect the real situation. The reason is that the number of students per teacher in urban and important rural areas reaches 55 students per teacher if not more as in the capitals of some districts where there are up to 60 to 75 students per teacher. On the other hand, in rural and remote areas, we can count ten or fifteen students per teacher in the best of cases.

According to what preceded, it is obvious that there is a lack of strategies for studying the situation and setting plans for the future. It has become of urgency to reexamine the schools map (by defining new criteria for the redistribution of schools) to optimize the use of existing school buildings and set a new distribution for the new ones according to scientific criteria taking into consideration population density for people in schooling age and the capacity to absorb the annual rush of the areas surrounding scholar institutions. It is also important to reassess the current programs in order to establish a continuous training program for teachers according to the needs of each district alone. These two factors (school buildings and teachers) are the foundation of the development of basic education.

Indicator (10): Percentage of basic schools holding licenses for teaching according to national criteria:

The teacher holding a license to teach is a person who received special qualifications from an institution for the teachers’ training or from a technical institute, and who was duly hired as a teacher on a permanent basis. He must have received a special educational training during his employment in the educational field, be earning a salary on a regular basis and enjoying all the rights of the civil service regulations.

The teacher who does not hold a license of teaching is a person working temporarily in the field of teaching alike those who hold a baccalaureate diploma and who are executing compulsory national service instead of military service. There are also volunteers alike graduates from educational faculties or other academic institutions who volunteer to teach before achieving officially the conditions of their employment; these volunteers might receive a seasonal remuneration like for compulsory national service teachers or might not receive any remuneration like volunteers until they complete the requirements to be employed; they might also receive some motivating wages or awards from the parents committee in some local societies.

The following chart shows the total number of teachers according to their diplomas and their percentages.

when studying the indicators shown in this chart, we see that the teachers not holding licenses are 9.1% for both genders while those holding licenses are (90.9%).

If we take each gender apart, we find that 10% of male teachers and 8.5% of female teachers do not hold licenses. The rest of the percentages are teachers holding licenses.

Despite the great number of teachers holding licenses, the need to rehabilitate them and improve their professional and scientific qualifications is still present especially that around 50% among them only hold the baccalaureate degree or the educational training degree. Moreover, the continuous training of teachers is a necessity to improve teaching in basic education and to extend it to all.

Indicator (12): Average of grade repetition in basic education according to each grade.

When referring to chart (8), it is possible to study the efficiency of the educational system in Yemen. As the chart shows, there is a drop in the repetition rate for the 1^st and 2^nd grade for both males and females alike. Repetition rates progressively increase in grades 3 to 5. In grade 1, this rate reached 6.3% for both genders together while in grades (1-5) of basic education, it reached about 6.5% for both genders. Likewise, this rate reached 3.5% in grade 1 for males while it reached 3.9% for females. This means that the repetition rate is more important for females than for males. This applies to all the grades that follow until the fifth grade.

Moreover, we notice that the repetition rate for males for grades 1 to 5 reached 6.3% while it reached about 7% for females.

This rate varies from one district to another and it reached its maximum in "Hadramout" where repetition rates in grades (1-5) for both genders reached 11.4%: around 13% for males and 9.1% for females.

The district that follows "Hadramout" in the repetition rates in grades (1-5) is "Ib" where this rate reached around 10% for both genders: 10% for males and 9.2% for females. "Hajjeh" District recorded the lowest repetition rate in grades (1-5) with 3.9% for both genders: 3.5% for males and 6.3% for females.

What aggravated the problem and the importance of this rate is the absence of precision in the allowed number of repetitions per class and per student on one hand and the lack of qualified teachers for grades (1-4) on the other hand.

Despite the absence of statistics pertaining to repetition in grades (1-5) in rural and urban areas, it is known that this average increases with the increase of density per grade and the absence of control and educational follow-up in rural and remote areas where most of the teachers are not qualified to teach and hold intermediary level degrees.

We also notice that the repetition rate increases from the fifth grade until the ninth, despite differences between grades and years. The more the repetition rates increases, the more it is reflected on rates of dropping out of education and the less students complete basic education.

- Indicator (13): the retention rate until the 5^th grade (percentages of those who really reach 5^th grade among every class of students).

- Indicator (14): efficiency criteria (the ideal number of years - number of students who should achieve primary phase [as a rate] - as a percentage from the actual number of year - number of students).

When referring to chart (9), we notice that the retention rate until the 5^th grade reached 74.4% for both genders due to staying down in classes and dropping out of schools. The repetition rate reached 13.3% in 98/99 while dropout was of 7.7% for both genders in 98/99. For males, the percentage of achieving studies until the 5^th grade reached 77.2% due to the high repetition and dropout rates; the repetition rate reached 14.5% for males while dropout rate was 7%.

The percentage of achieving studies until the 5^th grade was only 69.2% for females due to the fact that repetition rate reached 10.65% while dropout rate reached 9.6%.

When comparing the retention rates of both gender, we notice that males achieve their studies more than females because dropout rate for females was superior to that for males (9.6%).

As in regards to teaching efficiency until the 5^th grade, we notice that in chart (9) it reached 70.8% for both genders: 72.5% for males and 67.1% for females for the same year.

We can state that:

We also see that the parity ratio between both genders is 0.9 as in regards to retention and efficiency coefficients until the fifth grade. It also reached 0.9 for the education efficiency for primary level grades (from 1-6).