The efficiency rates for the period 1992 to 1998 were above 82%. The efficiency of the system has been increasing and decreasing during the period 1992 to 1995. Since then a sharp decrease has been witnessed. In 1994 a coefficient of efficiency of more than 100% was recorded. This could be due to unrecorded drop ins into the system. In most cases boys spent fewer years in school than girls. See table and figure 6.17

In most regions there were disparities in the coefficient of efficiency and this was in favor of boys. This indicates that for girls there is a lot of wastage due to dropouts. There were several disparities among regions with Manicaland region recording the highest chances of wastage. Matebeleland South recorded the highest efficiency rate. Efficiency rates above 100% recorded in Matebeleland South may be due to unrecorded drop-ins into the school system.

Pupil-teacher ratios varied among locations and school types. Commercial farming area schools recorded the least pupil-teacher ratios for both types of schools. Resettlement schools recorded the highest pupil-teacher ratios for both types of schools. All schools have tried to keep their pupil/teacher ratios small and even smaller than the government stipulated one of one teacher to 40 pupils. There are even class sizes which are smaller than the stipulated 1:40.

At regional level pupil-teacher ratios have not shown significant variations. In all regions the teacher/pupil ratios on average is 37.

Teachers are the single, most important component in the Zimbabwean education system. They are also the only measure parents, students, and administrators have to evaluate the effectiveness of the school system. Teachers have been institutionalised in the education system, and remain the focal point of all curricular and classroom organisation. This input, however, lends itself to being influenced by administrative decisions, and remains the focus of the Ministry's school improvement efforts.

Because the nation faces financial constraints, and since teachers' salaries consume the largest share of the finances available to education, the country is left with meager funds for alternative methods of instruction and other teacher-support systems. For this reason, the teacher-centred curriculum is the most common form of teaching in the Zimbabwean school system. Consequently, the quality of the teachers deployed in the schools is of major concern to policy makers, planners, administrators, parents, and other stakeholders.

Moreover, increased demand for education, and the consequent rapid expansion of the education system, following the attainment of independence, led to a shortage of qualified teachers. Therefore, large numbers of untrained teachers were drafted into the teaching service. One device used to accommodate all children in need of education was to put the optimum number per class at 1:40.

The minimum qualification for a primary school teacher in Zimbabwe is the possession of an 'O' level academic certificate (four years of secondary education), plus a teacher certificate obtained after three or four years of teacher education. For historical reasons, there are qualified teachers in the primary school system who possess lower academic qualifications. These are, however, being phased out of the system through natural attrition. Ministry policy is to eliminate all the unqualified teachers from the education system as quickly as suitably trained teachers become available.

Nearly all teachers in Zimbabwe are civil servants and are employed by the Government. Their deployment and distribution to meet the demand in schools in the various regions, districts and types of schools (regardless of ownership) is the responsibility of the Government.

Teachers' academic qualifications (knowledge levels) vary greatly among serving primary-school teachers. However teachers' academic qualifications, although an important indicator of teacher competence, is not included in this analysis. All the current qualifications are considered as being standard qualification. The length of time taken to obtain them is not used as a measure of indication of greater or lesser teacher competence. Also excluded from the analysis is the teacher's age, which can be used as a measure of teacher experience. Data for this indicator are not collected through the regular annual schools' census instrument.

1. Evolution of trained and untrained teachers from 1990

The number of trained teachers continued to increase since 1990 and the number of untrained teachers has continued to fall during the same period.

Data in table and figure 6.23 below show that in 1998 79.29% of the teachers in Zimbabwe were holders of teaching certificates. The remaining 20.71% were untrained but had the minimum academic qualifications to teach in primary schools. Of all the teachers certified to teach about 42% were males and 37% were females. Ten percent of the male untrained teachers were males and nine percent were females.

More than 95% of teachers teaching in urban schools were holders of teaching certificates. Rural schools recorded the least number of teachers certified were to teach. In each of the four location categories the over 73% of the teachers were holders of teaching certificates. Rural schools were slightly disadvantaged because most trained teachers preferred to teach in urban schools.

Literacy rate is defined as the proportion of people who have completed grade 3 for a particular population age group. So in this report the population aged 15 years and above who have completed at least grade three is classified as literate.

The table and figure 6.25 below show that most people in the 15-24 years age group were literate. The proportion of literate females was higher than that of males in 1992. In 1997 the proportion of literate males was higher than that of females. These high literacy rates for the 15-24 age group suggest that there is a high level of participation and retention in primary schools up to grade three.

2. Adult Literacy

The table and figure below show that 86 percent of male in the Inter Censal Demographic Survey were literate. This is relatively higher than the 1992 population census, which was 80%. The literacy rates were higher for males (90%) than females (82%). The literacy rates were also higher than those for 1992 for both sexes. The trend remained the same in terms of gender differences. Increase in the literacy rates indicates improvements in the provision of educational services.

At provincial level Harare had the highest literacy rate of 96 percent followed by Bulawayo with 95%. This may be attributed to the fact that Harare and Bulawayo are almost 100% urban. Mashonaland central had the lowest literacy rate of 75%. In each region the proportion of literate males was higher than that of females. Except in Harare and Bulawayo there were considerable disparities in literacy rates between males and females.

Source: CSO Zimbabwe

The EFA strategy, plan and programmes were sound and realistic in the light of the gains made since 1990. Accessibility to schools by all children has been improved, not-withstanding the difficulties experienced in remote, resettlement and commercial farming areas. The plans and major programmes, although adversely affected by unforeseen factors such as economic stagnation and high inflation rates, were generally clear and within reach. See Table 7.11 below.

Although we have not achieved the set targets in the various areas we have registered positive gains for example literacy rates for 15 year olds and above was 80 percent in 1990 and rose to 86 percent in 1997. Trained teachers increased from 64 percent in 1990 to 79 percent in 1998 while that of ECEC rose from 20 percent to 35 percent during the same period. We are now able to disagregate information on enrolments by gender, age location etc., We have developed capacity for timeously collecting and analyse annual school census data. The tuition grants are skewed towards rural areas. There has been an increase in per capita grant allocation from ($12 in 1990 to $50 in 1999) in favour of rural schools. This was an attempt to eradicate disparities between urban and rural areas. Parity has almost been achieved in gender participation. The 1998 net enrolment ratios show a parity index of almost 1.0.

Although for special education we did not set targets in quantitative terms, data in Table 7.1 above show that major achievements were made in the areas of access and the provision of facilities and equipment. There has also been an upsurge of activities in awareness campaigns and outreach aimed at early identification, detection and inclusion of disabled children.

In 1990 the EFA programme was faced with real challenges that had not been anticipated before. Some of these challenges required a redefinition of strategies and policies to suit the new order. In some cases the gains made during the first decade were adversely affected if not completely reversed. Like many developing countries, Zimbabwe has a plethora of problems, which have had a negative effect on the implementation of EFA programs at primary, secondary and tertiary levels. A number of these problems emanated from the socio-economic milieu. These include the effects of economic adjustment programmes, the drought, resource limitations, gender imbalance, and the HIV AIDS pandemic.

The principal economic activities of Zimbabwe are agriculture, mining, and manufacturing. The earnings from these activities have been dependent on the weather situation and unstable international prices. The fall in value of the Zimbabwean dollar has eroded the incomes of its citizens. Prices of most commodities have skyrocketed.

The fall of Communism in 1989 meant that Zimbabwe had to change its outlook and give up socialism for a western type democracy, which was characterised by an open market economy.

The World Bank/IMF sponsored Economic Structural Adjustment Programme (ESAP) was adopted as a strategy for economic recovery. Cost recovery measures introduced under ESAP were a direct threat to free primary education. In 1992 tuition fees were re-introduced in urban areas causing untold suffering among the urban poor and those who had lost their jobs by reason of ESAP. The Zimbabwe Programme for Economic and Social Transformation (ZIMPREST) was adopted in 1996 as a continuation of ESAP. Economic recovery remained an illusive mirage for Zimbabwe. In 1997 the Zimbabwe dollar lost ground against major currencies. Both inflation and high interest rates continued to soar to unprecedented levels. Disposable incomes have become so scarce that many parents may not be able to pay fees for their children.

The effects of these programmes have been far reaching. Unfortunately, ESAP coincided with the 1991/1992 drought and as a result, many of the EFA targets were not met. Retrenchment of workers in government, parastatals and the private sector increased poverty levels and the policy of cost recovery measures in education meant most of the achievements of the first ten years were in danger of being eroded. School fees in urban schools, and other costs such as levies, uniforms, stationery, construction and maintenance of buildings were borne by parents.

The shortage of resources, human, financial and material, has been an incessant problem that has bedevilled curriculum delivery during the present decade. In 1995 for example, 26% of teachers teaching at the primary level and 24% of those at the secondary level were untrained. Inequality of provision of physical resources in schools have displayed a historical consistency. Elite high fee paying private schools have abundance of facilities and equipment as opposed to poor rural schools owned by Rural District Councils (RDCs). In 1997, of the 6200 schools in Zimbabwe, 4688 (76%) were owned by RDCs and were very highly disadvantaged in terms of number of classrooms, toilets, teachers' houses, percentage of qualified teachers, and the teacher/pupil ratio (MOHET:1998). The Curriculum delivery and implementation at these schools can therefore not be equated with that at the relatively well to do urban, church and government schools.

Poverty, is defined as "the inability to attain a level of well-being constituting a realistic minimum as defined by society" (CSO:1998). Over 75% of Zimbabwean families were poor. The survey carried by the Central Statistical Office indicated that participation in education at primary and secondary levels declined with poverty. Non-poor household pupils entered school earlier than those from poor households. The reasons for this were resource constraints and participation of the children in household chores.

This survey also showed that children from poor households had their enrolment at school delayed or, if they enrolled at all, they would eventually drop out. 1998 statistics indicated that the drop out rate at primary level 2.5% was more than that secondary level which was 2.0%. The rate was more pronounced at Grade 1 level and the main reason given was the long distances the children in rural areas, travelled to get to schools (Statistics Bulletin First Term 1998). There was passive participation in school because of fatigue (Nherera and Dyanda:1998).

Other studies have established that the drop-out rate for girls was consistently higher than that of boys (Economic Analysis: MOESC).

In Zimbabwe, societal attitudes continue to perpetuate gender inequality. As a result girls have lower access to and retention rates in the education system. For example, in 1995, the transition from primary school to secondary was 75.5% for boys and 71.7% for girls. In 1996, it was 71.2% for boys and 67.9% for girls (MOHET:1998). The statistics indicate the system's internal efficiency was low for both sexes but more girls dropped out. The CSO survey also showed that the drop out rate for girls increased as poverty increased.

This imbalance was also evident at tertiary level. For example, in 1998, the number of female students at all technical colleges was 4 866 as opposed to 12 099 male students. Zimbabwe therefore still has a long way to go to address the issue of gender equity. The policy of affirmative action was formulated to enhance the position of women and gender sensitivity now permeates curriculum development in both ministries. The achievement of EFA goals will be negatively affected if the gender imbalances continue to exists.

Zimbabwe experienced what has been referred to as the worst drought in living memory in1991/1992. Another drought period occurred in 1995. Agriculture was severely affected. The contribution of agriculture to the GNP fell dramatically during these drought periods. Employment opportunities in agro-based industries declined leading to massive retrenchments. This led to poverty to both rural and urban dwellers. Disposable incomes dwindled and the ability for most parents to shoulder educational finances was seriously curtailed. The natural catastrophe caused enrolment levels to fall throughout the country. Many children faced with starvation simply dropped out of school. When resources became scarce, parents normally sent boys to school while the girls remained at home carrying out domestic chores.

The first AIDS case was reported in Zimbabwe in 1985. Now the morbidity and mortality rates are fast approaching national disaster levels. In 1997, out of a population of 11 million, 1.7 million were reported to be HIV positive. This figure is likely to reach 2 million by the year 2000 (UNICEF). Many households were losing breadwinners and care-givers. This has resulted on increased dependency as well as increased health care budget at the expense of education. The quality of life for children who are left with relatives has deteriorated.(Nherera et al 1998) Professional groups including teachers and student teachers have succumbed to the disease.

Public support and demand for basic education is very strong in Zimbabwe. This is indicated by the strong partnerships between government and local communities, responsible authorities and the private sector. Each of the partners has contributed financially and otherwise e.g. responsible authorities provide physical structures at school level. They are also responsible for the provision of learning and teaching materials through levies raised at local level.

Government through the ministries of Education has supported the EFA programme by establishing the various implementation and management structures. Government pays all the salaries of teachers in registered schools throughout the country regardless of who owns the school. It also pays various types of grants to responsible authorities for the development of schools and it has consistently allocated the highest budget allocation to education. Government has continued to encourage co-operating partners to support the EFA programme. Although the political will is there Government does not have the capacity to implement all planned EFA related activities, a situation further exacerbated by economic hardship that the country is facing.

• The establishment of partnerships and inter-ministerial steering committees.
• The participation of UN agencies and multilateral and bilateral agencies.
• The decentralisation of power and authority to the local levels.
• Appointment of a Presidential Commission of inquiry into education and training.
• The current requirement for the teaching force is a minimum qualification of ‘O’ level education including English.
• The poverty alleviation programme targeted at rural areas has also assisted in the implementation and management of the EFA programme.
• The various feeding Programmes and the grain loan schemes.
• The establishment of the social dimensions fund is to cushion the poor against economic hardships

• Poor communication links by reason of poor road networks and telephone services in the rural areas.
• Limited financial resources.
• Lack of vehicles for supervision and delivery of education services.
• Lack of employment opportunities for school leavers.
• Disparities existing between rural and urban areas.
• Low teacher morale due to low salaries and poor accommodation.
• Limited administrative and implementation capacity of local authorities.
• Lack of compatibility between some cooperating partners agendas and national priorities.

Although we have not been able to achieve 100% of the set targets, the EFA implementation program has indicated positive gains in various areas.

• The process of decentralisation will create sustainable partnerships between central government and the local authorities while empowering the latter to develop and sustain educational programs in the context of local social and economic needs. It also enhances the development of local talent and initiatives.
• In spite of all the problems threatening the achievement of the EFA goals, the government has continued to allocate the largest proportion of the national budget to education.
• Non-governmental organisations, UN agencies, bilateral and multi-lateral donors, private sector, local authorities and communities have contributed greatly to the achievement of the EFA goals.
• The unstable macro economic situation has made it difficult for children in difficult circumstances to access basic education. Prices are spiraling and inflation has reached unprecedented levels.
• Zimbabwe has almost achieved gender parity in terms of access and participation in basic education.
• Children with disabilities have been integrated into the formal system through the process of inclusiveness.
• Textbook/Pupil ratios have been improved as a result of budget support for rural primary schools from 1-10 to almost 1-5. This positive move is likely to improve the quality of education and general pupil achievement.
• Demand for relevance of the education system to the national socio-economic needs led to wide consultations, which culminated, in the appointment of the Presidential Commission of Inquiry into Education and training.
• There has always been a dysfunction between education and the job market in the country. It is estimated that 180 000 school leavers join the jobless, annually. To curb this problem MHET in 1998 came up with a program to establish vocational training centres (VTCs) to provide training opportunities for school leavers without skills required for employment in both the formal and informal sector. These institutions exist alongside formal technical colleges. They are however community based and should be easily accessible to the local communities since entry does not require formal academic qualifications.
• The completion rates have decreased. The fall in completion rates may have been caused by the people ‘s frustration with the education system, economic hardships or cross-boarder jumping by youth and school leavers in search of jobs in neighbouring countries.

The Zimbabwe education system is highly academic and exam driven as a result the system lacks alternative assessment strategies.

• Zimbabwe still has sparsely populated rural areas and inaccessible areas due to rough terrain whereby pupils have to travel for long distances to school. This leads to delayed entry into the first grade hence the high percentage of over age new entrants and failure to achieve 100% net intake and enrolment ratios.
• Failure of safety nets to support children in difficult circumstances e.g. the Social Dimensions fund (SDF) which was declared broke leaving many children without assistance.
• National education programs need to be consistently reviewed. Currently it is donor-funded programs that are regularly reviewed.

Target groups are primary school dropouts, secondary school dropouts retrenchees from private and public sectors and those who missed schooling opportunities for one reason or another.