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PREFACE
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This study is one of a series of thematic studies prepared as
part of the Education For All (EFA) Assessment for the Year
2000, coordinated by the EFA Forum. It has been prepared on
a cooperative basis, with inputs from leading UN, donor and
non-governmental organisations active in the field of education
in emergency situations. |
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It was presented the 27th April 2000 within the Strategy Session
at Dakar’s World Education Forum. |
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The reason for the study is clear. The year 1990 saw the call
from Jomtien towards Education for All, and the entry into force
of the Convention on the Rights of the Child, which required
states to protect children’s rights, including the right to
education. Yet the circumstances of the 1990s prevented many
children and adults from enjoying their basic rights. Many countries
were torn apart by conflict, and some suffered crippling natural
disasters. Millions were displaced across international borders,
as refugees. Millions were displaced within their own countries.
And millions were at risk in their own homes, due to chronic
insecurity and political instability, the destruction of social
infrastructure, and the poverty that follows from civil conflict.
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Educational institutions have been a target in armed conflict,
although this is contrary to humanitarian law. In times of conflict
and emergency they have been used for shelter and other purposes
rather than education. Teachers have been called to fight for
their country or clan, and sometimes targeted for assassination
in times of internal conflict. In all too many countries and
regions, education systems have been destroyed or have collapsed.
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During the 1990s, national governments and humanitarian agencies
working to alleviate the effects of man-made and natural disasters,
have initiated emergency education programmes, in refugee camps
and settlements and in countries affected by war and disaster.
There have been major successes but in many cases the response
has been inadequate, often due to difficulties of access to
affected populations and to lack of funds to provide the help
that is needed. |
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In some locations, special programmes have been developed for
the disabled, for child soldiers and ex-combatants. The need
to raise awareness of the dangers of landmines, of HIV/AIDS,
drug abuse and other health hazards and of environmental degradation
has led to innovative programmes. There are exciting new initiatives
in the field of education for peace, human rights and civil
society. These initiatives have been scattered and exploratory,
however, because the field of education in emergency, crisis
and transition is relatively new and has not yet received the
attention it deserves. |
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We believe that the EFA 2000 Assessment can be the time at which
educators will become more conscious of education in emergency
and post-conflict situations as a contribution to national development
and to peaceful solution of national and international problems.
Education is the right of the child, and not only a privilege,
right in the early days of a disaster or after becoming a refugee
or being internally displaced. Even at this early stage, however
education should be planned to build for the long term, not
just for the child but for his or her community and nation.
At the stage of reconstruction, expert assistance and international
resources may be the key to helping national educators bring
about an educational transformation that lays the foundations
for peace and prosperity. |
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The secretariat for this study wish to thank the staff of the
many organisations that contributed to its success. Questionnaire
data, project profiles and case studies from many countries
provided valuable information on the current situation and current
needs. Programme overviews and policy papers from concerned
UN agencies provided the context within which the state of the
field could be assessed. Two meetings of an advisory Technical
Working Group provided the framework for the study and a review
of the draft paper. It is hoped that this valuable experience
of working together on an informal basis will lead to more structured
inter-agency cooperation in the future. |
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The conclusion is that MAN-MADE AND NATURAL DISASTERS HAVE EMERGED
AS MAJOR BARRIERS TO THE ACCOMPLISHMENT OF EDUCATION FOR ALL.
We recommend measures to re-introduce education as soon as possible
in any emergency situation and as a principal intervention to
meet the psychosocial needs of children and adolescents affected
by trauma and displacement. Such interventions should be designed
on the principle that education in emergencies is at the same
time education for sustainable development, a crucial factor
in bringing peace and stability rather than a continuing cycle
of conflict, revenge and instability, -or continuing susceptibility
to natural disasters. |
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The Dakar Declaration stressed strongly on this point. |
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The support of the Swedish International Development Agency
(SIDA) for this study is gratefully acknowledged. |
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SUMMARY
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The 1990 World Conference on Education for All (EFA) set challenging
targets for the 1990s, including swift progress towards basic
education for all. The Declaration and Framework made only limited
reference to education in emergency situations, but war and
natural disasters have proved a major barrier to the achievement
of EFA. Disasters such as floods, hurricanes and earthquakes
have taken a heavy toll of human life and also of educational
opportunity, when they have struck densely populated areas.
Wars and civil conflicts have left whole nations or regions
in poverty and insecurity, and robbed many children and adolescents
of the chance to study. |
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The review of education in emergency situations, presented in
this Theme Paper, shows that displaced and emergency-affected
communities make every effort to restore the access of children
to schooling. In refugee situations, they are often successful,
since host country governments and humanitarian agencies are
conscious of their concerns and endeavour to provide the necessary
resources. Most refugee camps and settlements have schools,
though in some locations they lack textbooks and teachers need
additional training and supervision. Internally displaced populations
and populations not displaced but suffering from chronic insecurity
are less able to access educational resources for their children.
In such locations, a generation of children may miss out on
basic schooling. In post-conflict situations, the reconstruction
of education systems is often delayed. There is wide variability
regarding access to secondary and tertiary education, crucial
sectors for developing the skilled workforce needed for post-crisis
renewal and the transition to national development. |
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Wider aspects of the Jomtien agenda, such as early childhood
development and basic education for adults, have received attention
from organisations working for conflict-affected populations,
notably NGOs. Pre-school initiatives, literacy classes for youth
and adults, notably women, and vocational training have been
initiated where humanitarian organisations had access and when
funds were available. Likewise there have been initiatives to
promote the education and training of children and adults disabled
through war, injury by landmines or other causes. There are
innovative programmes to promote the education and reintegration
of child soldiers and ex-combatants. |
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The Theme Paper examines some of the new directions in education
policy for emergency and post-emergency situations. The 1989
Convention on the Rights of the Child has led to a stronger
emphasis on the child’s right to education. This has coincided
with the realisation that rapid educational response helps meet
the psychosocial needs of displaced children and communities,
leading to the idea that emergency education and recreational
supplies should reach affected communities within weeks or not
later than 3 months after a community is displaced. Special
policies regarding curriculum may be needed, when populations
are displaced across national borders, and the concept of ‘education
for repatriation’ has taken hold, while there is ongoing exploration
of ways to ensure the recognition of studies undertaken by refugees
while in exile. |
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In line with the Jomtien and Beijing emphases on the education
of girls and women, there have been efforts to sensitise educators
and parents on the importance of girls education. In some cases,
incentives have been provided to help girls attend school, with
good results. A multi-faceted strategy adapted to local concerns
and culture is needed. While some aspects of the strategy are
cost-free, such as school timings, other aspects of the strategy
require additional funding, -for example to provide sanitary
materials and school clothing for older girls, or to support
pre-schools that free older girls to attend school rather than
looking after their younger siblings. |
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The wide variation in the quality of emergency education reflects
uncertainty among supporting agencies about standards for provision
of educational materials, in-service teacher training, non-formal
education, etc. Appropriate standards of resourcing should be
defined, and then respected by implementing agencies and donors,
with clearer reporting of unmet needs. |
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The use of new technologies can be a major step forward, especially
in situations of chronic instability or when education systems
are being rebuilt. Innovative radio programmes such as New Home,
New Life for Afghanistan represent a step forward in this area.
Education for crisis-affected and post-conflict regions should
be included in new international initiatives using electronic
and satellite communication technologies. |
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Education programmes for populations affected by natural disasters
or war must be adapted to the special needs of these populations.
The Machel Report on the Impact of Armed Conflict on Children
has led to a greater emphasis on the psychosocial needs of students,
on education for mine awareness, and to develop the skills for
peace. The devastation caused by AIDS has added a new dimension
to the education agenda, since the disease is almost certainly
more prevalent in populations where rape may have been used
as a tool of war. |
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Recommendations arising from the study begin with the need to
acknowledge the right to education even under conditions of
emergency. A systematic effort is needed to publicise the fact
that human rights instruments and humanitarian law demand both
the protection of children from abuse and under-age recruitment
and also the protection of schools in times of war and of the
child’s right to education. It must be acknowledged again, as
in the Jomtien Framework of Action, that resourcing for education
in emergency and post-crisis situations ‘is an acknowledged
international responsibility’. |
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A key recommendation is that education in emergencies be seen,
and planned from Day One, as part of the development process
and not solely as a ‘relief’ effort. Donors should avoid compartmentalisation
of funding that can have the effect of creating an uneducated
and bitter, revenge-oriented generation, because education in
emergency was seen as the last call on inadequate ‘humanitarian’
budgets (or excluded from them). Moreover, restoration of access
to schooling in a post-conflict situation should be seen as
a funding priority. There should be inter-agency coordination
to ensure continuity from the early emergency to the reconstruction
phase. The task of building a Culture of Peace to sustain future
development in nations and communities divided by ethnic and
other conflicts should begin at the emergency stage and continue
into the building of civil society in post-conflict situations.
Current initiatives in ‘Education for Peace’ in the humanitarian
context should be brought together on an inter-agency basis,
as a contribution to the forthcoming Decade for the Culture
of Peace and Non-Violence for the Children of the World. |
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Norms and standards should be developed for educational response
in natural and man-made catastrophes, with more in-depth field
studies by scholars working in the field of education or regional
studies. This includes review and evaluation of modalities of
rapid response, and of standards for education in prolonged
refugee or crisis situations and for post-conflict reconstruction.
There should be review and sharing of educational materials
and manuals developed by organisations working in humanitarian
emergencies and identification of other materials suited for
use in such situations. Training modules on education in emergency
and post-conflict situations should be developed for use with
staff of humanitarian organisations and as part of standard
courses in educational planning. |
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Inter-agency cooperation and coordination in the field of emergency
education should be strengthened, and use should be made of
the new possibilities of electronic communication to link field
specialists into the inter-agency dialogue. |
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Every
person -child, youth and adult - shall be able to benefit
from educational opportunities designed to meet their
basic learning needs.'
(Article
1, World Declaration on Education for All, Jomtien,
1990
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"Countries
affected by conflicts, countries in transition and post-crisis
countries must be given the support they need to achieve
more rapid progress towards Education for All".
Art.11
- The Dakar Framework for Action - April 2000.
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At the Jomtien Conference ten years ago, the participants recalled
that ‘education is a fundamental right for all people, women
and men, of all ages, throughout our world’ and noted that education
can help ensure a ‘safer, healthier, more prosperous and environmentally
sound world’. For the first time, policy-makers and representatives
of the world of education and civil society agreed on a world
strategy to promote universal basic education for children,
and to reduce massive illiteracy rates among young people and
adults especially women. |
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The tone was optimistic and there was little mention of education
in emergencies, -just a reference in Article 3 of the Declaration
to removing educational disparities for underserved groups including
'refugees; those displaced by war; and people under occupation'.
The Jomtien Framework for Action again devoted only three sentences
to education for emergency-affected populations. Under the heading
of 'Education programmes for refugees', it emphasised the need
for 'more substantial and reliable long-term financial support
for this recognised international responsibility' to organisations
such as UNHCR and UNRWA, and refugee-hosting countries. The
third sentence covered the broader scenario of persons affected
by conflict or other disasters. 'The world community will also
endeavour to ensure that people under occupation or displaced
by war and other calamities continue to have access to basic
education programmes that preserve their cultural identity'. |
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War and other calamities' have unfortunately stalked the world
in the 1990s. The Gulf War, genocide in Rwanda, civil strife
in the former Yugoslavia, Afghanistan, Colombia, parts of the
former Soviet Union, Liberia, Sierra Leone, Somalia, Burundi,
Sudan, Angola and many other countries have led to immense human
suffering. Natural disasters have wreaked havoc, as with the
impact of Hurricane Mitch in Central America and the recent
earthquake in Turkey. No review of Education for All can now
ignore the destruction of education systems, programmes and
infrastructure that accompanies such disasters, nor the traumatic
effects of violence and displacement on teachers, children and
their families. |
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The Mid-Decade meeting on Education for All (Amman, 1996) responded
to the evolving situation with greater emphasis on education
in emergency situations. 'Delivering basic education in situations
of crisis and transition' was one of the topics for discussion.
Recommendations included the classification of schools as 'safety
zones' to be preserved untouched in times of conflict, better
understanding of the role that education plays in conflict management
and crisis prevention, and more information on innovative programmes
and ways to rebuild education systems to meet the needs of traumatised
and displaced groups. |
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Meanwhile the General Assembly of the United Nations had requested
a study into the ways of improving the protection of children
affected by armed conflicts (Resolution 48/157, December 1993).
The 1996 Report of the Expert on the Impact of Armed Conflict
on Children (the 'Machel Report') set out in detail the horrors
being visited on children and steps that should be taken to
prevent their recurrence and to improve the protection and care
of children. Regarding education, the Report recommends all
possible measures to maintain education systems during conflict,
and urgent introduction of educational activities for displaced
and refugee children and adolescents, and in post-conflict situations.
'Support for the re-establishment and continuity of education
must be a priority strategy for donors and NGOs in conflict
and post-conflict situations' (para. 203e). Schooling is seen
as a vital tool for promoting psychosocial well-being after
trauma, and for conveying messages relating to health, mine
awareness, human rights, peace and tolerance. |
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Likewise, the Fourth World Conference on Women (Beijing, 1995)
stressed the need to provide education and training for girls,
boys and women affected by displacement (as refugees or internally
displaced), or otherwise in need of international protection.
Educational materials should be available even in emergency
situations, to minimise the disruption of schooling among refugee
and displaced children (Platform of Action, para. 147). Education
for non-violent conflict resolution and tolerance is recommended
for girls, boys and adult members of the community, with a recognition
of women's key role in building a culture of peace (para. 146).(1)
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| 1. THE
RIGHT TO EDUCATION |
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Article
28, Convention on the Rights of the Child
Make primary education compulsory and available free
to all;
Encourage the development of different forms of secondary
education... , make them available and accessible to
every child, and take appropriate measures such as the
introduction of free education and offering financial
assistance in case of need;
Make higher education available to all on the basis
of capacity by every appropriate means...
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| 2. EDUCATION
IN EMERGENCIES: DEFINITIONS AND CONTEXT |
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The subject of education in emergencies has gained in importance
due to the numerous 'complex emergencies' of recent years, but
restoration of access to education is also important in local
emergencies such as earthquakes, floods and droughts. UNICEF
notes further that 'Persistent poverty, the increasing number
of children living on streets, and the HIV/AIDS pandemic are
silent, chronic emergencies'. (4) |
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Different agencies use different language for the phases of
an emergency. The World Food Programme (WFP), for example, distinguishes
initial Emergency Operations and longer term Protracted Relief
and Recovery Operations. UNHCR typically divides a complex emergency
into a short emergency phase of 3 to 6 months, a 'Care and Maintenance'
phase, and a phase of support for a durable solution such as
repatriation and reconstruction or local settlement. |
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For UNESCO, an educational emergency is a crisis situation created
by conflicts or natural disasters which have destabilised, disorganised
or even destroyed the education system, and which requires an
integrated process of crisis and post-crisis response. |
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In general, emergency education programmes are a response to
exceptional crisis conditions requiring exceptional means of
response, linked to a process of planning for future educational
development. |
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The context of education in emergencies reflects the horrors
of contemporary civil conflicts, in which the proportion of
victims who are civilians has risen to over 90%. UNICEF estimates
that the last decade has seen some two million child deaths
from armed conflict, together with six million children seriously
injured, one million orphaned or separated from their families
and twelve million left homeless.(5) |
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The Machel Report speaks of 'the attack on children', some of
whom are forced into armies and militia, and in too many cases,
forced to kill, commit atrocities or serve as sexual slaves
; and comments that 'more and more of the world is being sucked
into a desolate moral vacuum …devoid of the most basic human
values' (para. 3). It cites the UNICEF survey in Rwanda in 1995,
which showed that 80% of the children surveyed had lost immediate
family members and that more than one third of these had witnessed
their murders. Children and adults have been traumatised by
the exceptional brutality of recent conflicts, as well as by
bereavement and often displacement from their homes and communities.
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The global refugee
population rose to an all-time high in 1992, at 18 million.
UNHCR notes that the world refugee population in 1998, estimated
at 11.5 million, is the lowest figure for the past ten years.
The total 'population of concern to UNHCR' in 1998 is 22 million,
including two million recently repatriated refugees, five
million internally displaced persons (IDPs) in situations
where UNHCR has special responsibilities, and recently returned
IDPs. (6)
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The total number of IDPs in the world is difficult to estimate
and there are problems of definition, but it is widely believed
that some 50 million people in all are displaced from their
homes as IDPs or refugees : approaching one per cent of the
world population. In addition there are other populations affected
by ongoing or recent civil conflict, who were not counted as
displaced or who have returned to their places of origin. A
recent study listed 39 countries as having internally displaced
populations of 50,000 or over, with six countries -Afghanistan,
Angola, Colombia, Democratic Republic of Congo, Iraq, Myanmar,
Sri Lanka and Sudan cited as having internally displaced populations
approaching or exceeding one million.(7) |
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Natural and man-made disasters cause severe damage to education
systems. In the case of natural catastrophes the damage is often
to school buildings and educational materials. War and violent
conflict cause even greater damage, affecting the whole organisational
basis of education. There are often dramatic falls in student
numbers, due to ongoing fear of attacks, displacement of teachers,
destruction and looting of infrastructure and materials, and
collapse of local and sometimes national educational administration.
In many recent conflicts, the majority of schools have been
destroyed or damaged, while others have been used for residential
purposes or barracks and need rehabilitation. In Somalia, the
war almost totally destroyed the nation's textbooks and curricula.(8) |
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| 3. EMERGENCY
EDUCATION AS A DEVELOPMENT INTERVENTION |
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Education in emergencies has often been seen as a 'relief' effort,
a temporary measure. This implies that it is optional, in the
case of funding problems, and that it need not be designed in
a professional manner. As noted in UNICEF's policy paper 'Any
emergency education programme must be a development programme
and not merely a stop-gap measure that will halt when a particular
situation is no longer experiencing intense media coverage.'(9)
Indeed, since weaknesses in education structures and content
may have contributed to civil conflict, an emergency can provide
an opportunity for positive change. |
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| Emergencies
can provide an opportunity for transforming education
along the lines envisaged at the Jomtien World Conference
for All. They allow for the possibility of reconstructing
a social institution that helps develop and form the human
resources that determine the way a society functions.
The challenge to educators is to understand this, plan
for it under very stressful and difficult situations,
and to assist with putting facilitating mechanisms in
place.' (UNICEF,1999b) |
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Among the many countries facing the problems of a generation
inured to conflict or traumatised by participating in it we
may cite Afghanistan, Angola, Burundi, Colombia, Congo-Brazzaville,
Democratic Republic of Congo, Liberia, Rwanda, Sierra Leone,
Somalia, Sudan, Uganda, much of the former Yugoslavia, and parts
of the former Soviet Union. |
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It is important to reflect on the fact that many of the poorest
countries in the world today are those recently affected by
conflict. Investment in the education of the populations involved
in those conflicts can represent an investment not only in a
better future for those individuals, families and communities
but for their country and indeed for neighboring countries too.
Neglect of education can lead to a self-perpetuating cycle of
violence and poverty, whereby young people grow up only learning
the skills of conflict and the attitudes of revenge. |
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Education in emergency is a humanitarian imperative which has
development-promoting outcomes. In this study, we seek to assess
recent achievements and the state of the art in respect of education
in emergencies, within the perspective of laying the foundations
for the development process. |
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| 4. METHODOLOGY
OF THE STUDY |
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The field of education in emergency and post-emergency situations
is rather new, and poorly documented. In order to prepare the
Theme Paper for this rapidly changing and developing field,
a group of agencies (seven UN organisations and 11 NGOs) were
invited to join an International Task Force, which met formally
in UNESCO in May and September 1999. Members of the Task Force
were invited to send questionnaires to their respective field
offices. Twenty four responses were received, providing information
on 52 specific programmes from different parts of the world.
This was supplemented by case studies of another 12 programmes.
Due to time constraints, some Task Force members submitted documentation
based on their existing records. Analysis of this material provided
insights on which the conclusions of this Theme Paper are based.
A summary of the survey data is presented in the Annexes. Policy
papers, programme overviews and case studies from UNHCR, UNICEF,
WFP, ILO, UNESCO and NGOs represented a vital input into the
analysis and conclusions of the study. |
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Based on this information, and a review of documentary sources,
a first draft of the Theme Study was presented to the Task Force
in September 1999. Based on comments and additional information
received a second draft was circulated to the Task Force members
in November 1999. In April 2000 it was presented as a working
document to the Special Strategy Session (round table) within
EFA Dakar Forum. |
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