Governments today face tough policy choices. They are under enormous pressure to expand provision at all levels of the education system. The financial crisis and economic slowdown run the risk of putting even more pressure on education systems, through stagnation or cutbacks in national spending, through students’ reduced abilities to pay, and through lower levels of aid. In several countries, public spending on higher education declined between 1999 and 2006. Higher student fees, reforms in student loans, the privatization of higher education and international commerce in education could deepen inequalities in terms of access to learning opportunities. Although the state plays different roles in higher education – as a provider, protector, regulator or advisor – it has an overriding responsibility to promote inclusion, to ensure quality and to support research that is responsive to societal needs.