Introduction
It is widely stated today that Science Education, along with scientific information and expertise, have become indispensable tools for all sectors of society, including decision-makers. Such a statement, however, raises many questions: What kind of science education is required? By whom? Who is to provide this education? Where are the resources for it?...

These and other questions are the subject of growing concern around the world, and many attempts at finding answers can be seen here and there. Important national and international projects are set up for this purpose. Numerous meetings are devoted to the subject, such as the recent World Conference on Higher Education (WCHE) (see IAU Newsletter, Vol. 4, No. 5, December 1998).

Now there is a renewed opportunity to address these questions, and a golden one indeed. Science Education will be one of the main axes of the World Conference on Science (WCS) to be held next June in Budapest, as it has already become evident in the preparatory phase. It appears as a cross-cutting theme in the basic documents of the WCS and in most of the conclusions of associated meetings. 

Does this mean that the answers to our questions are being found? Not at all. But at least there is greater awareness of the issues involved, and a clearer understanding and recognition of their complexity and importance – even urgency. 

Higher education in science, in particular, should be at the centre of the common ground linking Science and Education. In this regard, the WCS provides an occasion to take up the reflections and resolutions of the WCHE and to elaborate further reflections and proposals by taking advantage of the participation of scientists and representatives of institutions deeply involved in or committed to higher education in science. 

A complex context
As this century comes to an end, higher education in science faces a complex set of conditions. A still partial list of problems and challenges is presented here:

Most of the complex human, social and environmental problems of today require scientific knowledge and expertise from several fields and therefore an interdisciplinary training of scientists, as well as life-long learning facilities. On the other hand, professionals not directly engaged in science are in need of a broad science education that enables them to have an understanding and an appreciation of new discoveries, their impacts and possible consequences. These needs are normally not attended by the higher-education system.

Also links between the natural sciences on the one hand, and technology and engineering on the other, are often non-existent in the higher education system, despite the fact that science, engineering and technology interact strongly and fruitfully to produce new knowledge and applications in today’s world. The modes and mechanisms of interaction between teaching, research and industry are in need of revision, with due consideration of local conditions.

Research in higher education institutions plays a central role as part of the overall renewal and development of learning and teaching activities. Yet there is a widespread underestimation of the educational benefits of activities associated with the creation of knowledge. Only too often, research and teaching –even at graduate level– are carried out in separate environments, with the teaching staff not involved in research and the researchers, in turn, not involved in educational tasks.

The adequate scientific training of teachers and the production of teaching resources for all school levels, especially high school, is an unattended or unsolved problem in many countries. Normally, high school and university education pertain to different systems that barely interact, and the participation of university researchers or professors in the production of textbooks or the training of school teachers is seen as a marginal activity.

The career situation of young scientists in academia has become a difficult one, beset with high requirements, poor recognition and low wages, resulting in a frustration and demoralisation of the present generation of well-trained people. This is forcing a high number of students and young scientists to seek alternative careers that are more rewarding, even if this means leaving their country, as it often does in the case of developing countries.

Higher education and research institutions are in a critical financial situation, in practically all countries of the world. The capacity for public support is declining in general. Also the enrolment of students in science curricula is declining, especially in the developing countries that are in most need of a larger number of well-prepared scientists.

Especially in industrialised countries, higher education institutions are facing competition from research institutions outside the academic environment that are endowed with better equipment and more resources, while at the same time public funds for research in academic institutions are being restricted. In most developing countries, on the other hand, scientific research is still mainly academic and hence subject to growing restrictions arising from severe financial conditions. Universities are then put under pressure to reduce or even abandon research, as it is considered a costly and secondary activity vis à vis the teaching activity.

In fact, science is still in general an import good for the developing countries; most of it is produced abroad, and so it is taught. The local creation and the use of scientific knowledge are neither fostered nor well appreciated, and the endogenous knowledge is to a great extent dismissed as being irrelevant or even non-scientific. Scientific research is often undertaken and promoted for reasons of prestige and international image rather than to address the needs of society. 

Globalization of S&T related activities is putting special demands on the internationalisation of science. It requires the international recognition of a diverse range of studies, diplomas and degrees, as well as a wider mobility of students and staff so as to facilitate international collaboration.

At the same time, the general process of democratisation puts special demands on science and on education. It implies that higher education in science should be less exclusive. It also implies that it should respond more adequately to a plurality of expectations and reflect the cultural diversity of our peoples.

Although the number of girls who study science has increased in many countries and in some disciplines, the gender distribution is still far from balanced. Their attendance as students does not guarantee their integration into the teaching and research process, and less so into decision-making, unless special measures are taken. It is now more widely known and recognized that having equal numbers of men and women would have an impact on science, for there are different motivations and approaches to the creation of scientific knowledge, as there are also different ways of teaching and learning science. Hence scientific education and research are expected to adjust to a more active and involved participation of women.

Many new discoveries and applications of science are giving rise to a variety of ethical problems, some of them unforeseen or unexpected. It is increasingly important, therefore, to endow science students with a sense of awareness of the ethical dilemmas they may encounter in their professional life. In fact, ethics and the responsibility of science should be part of the science curricula and research programmes in higher education institutions.

Information and communication technologies are increasingly considered as a powerful tool for the solution of many educational have nots and challenges. Yet it is important not just to have the modern infrastructure, equipment and resources, but also the people who know how to work with them and who are fully aware of their limitations, dangers and potentialities. 

Every effort should be made to improve, strengthen and diversify science education at all levels, both formal and informal. This implies a critical revision of institutions, allocations, regulations, agreements, methodologies, approaches, collaborations and interactions,... and, last but not least, of our frames of mind. The WCS is expected to set the stage for a wide, collective effort in this direction.

* Ana Maria Cetto, from the Instituto de Física, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, is a member of the Council of the United Nations University (UNU) and works at present as a special Consultant to UNESCO for the World Conference on Science.

Guide to Higher Education in Africa 
Co-edited by the International Association of Universities and the Association of African Universities, this Guide contains a general introduction and a wealth of valuable facts and data on higher education systems, higher education institutions and agencies in Africa, in one single reference source. Details on 575 higher education institutions include: name of the Institutions, full postal address, phone, fax, e-mail and telegraphic references, list of all faculties, colleges, Schools, Institutes, Departments within the Institutions, brief historical background, information on academic year, admission requirements and tuition fees, degrees and diplomas, special facilities (museums etc) and publications, size and breakdown of academic staff, student enrolment figures, principal academic and administrative officers. Addresses of academic bodies in the 46 countries covered are provided as well.

Orders for the Handbook and the Guide : www.grovereference.com/Academic/IHU.htm , or 

• Macmillan Reference Ltd. 25 Eccleston Place, London SW1W 9NF, UK. tel: +44 (0)171 881 8027; fax: +44 (0)171 881 8022; e-mail: macref@macmillan.co.uk 
• Grove’s Dictionaries Inc. 345 Park Avenue South, 10th Floor New York, NY 10010-1707, USA ; tel: +1-800-221-2123 ; fax: +1-212-689-9711; 

Higher Education Policy 1999 : 
"Institutional Behaviour" (HEP. Vol. 12, no. 1) 
The issue contains articles on: "National quality assessment systems in the Nordic countries: developing a balance between external and internal needs?"; "Public Black colleges and desegregation in the United States: a continuing dilemma"; "Academic oligarchy and higher education research implications for the reform of institutions of higher education in Austria"; "Academic degree conferment in UK and Japan excluding universities"; "The modernisation of higher education in Mexico"; "Fair contest or elite sponsorship? Entry settlements in Australian higher education"; "A forecasting methodology for academic manpower requirements in a small sized manuscript overview"; "Establishing staff requirements for university academic programmes".

The Journal can be ordered from: Pergamon / Elsevier Science Regional Sales Office, Customer Support Department P.O. Box 211, 1000 AE Amsterdam, The Netherlands. fax: +31 20 485 3432; nlinfo-f@elsevier.nl

The Constitution Committee met in Paris (20-21 February) under the Chairmanship of Michel Falise, Rector Emeritus of the Catholic University of Lille, to review constitutional changes to be proposed to the General Conference so as to adapt the structure and the functioning of IAU in a manner that will allow the Association to best serve the needs and interests of its members in meeting the challenges of the 21st Century. These proposals will be sent out to the membership after review by the Administrative Board to take place in Quito, Ecuador, next November.

The Policy Committee will meet in Paris (14-15 May) under the Chairmanship of Wataru Mori, President of IAU. It will essentially review ongoing activities and the proposals made by the General Conference Programme Committee and the Constitution Committee and take the necessary decisions in preparation of the Administrative Board Meeting in Autumn.
 

The Conference will address and involve national governments and institutions, educational and research establishments, members of the scientific community, the industrial sector, intergovernmental organizations (IGOs) and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) as well as the media and the general public. All stakeholders with a vested interest in science and its role in societal development are welcome as active participants in the Conference process, although participation in the Conference itself will be by invitation only. A special role is to be played by the financial institutions and specialized agencies of the United Nations system, and those governmental and non-governmental bodies directly concerned with the scientific enterprise.

The Conference will be an event at which policy-makers, scientists and representatives of society in general can together discuss the issues identified and arrive at a means of increasing the commitment to, and from, science. The Conference is expected to adopt two formal documents of which a summary is given below: a World Declaration on Science which will underscore political commitment to the scientific endeavour and to the solution of problems at the interface between science and society; a Science Agenda - Framework for Action, an innovative and pragmatic framework for fostering partnerships in science and the use of science for development and the environment. 

Detailed information on the Conference can be found in English, French and Spanish on the Internet at: http://www.unesco.org/science/wcs/index.htm For further information, please contact : World Conference on Science Secretariat, UNESCO, 7, place de Fontenoy, 75352 Paris, France. Fax: (33) 1 45 68 58 23; e-mail: confsci@unesco.org; 
 
 

WCS Programme :

1. Forum I : Science : achievements, shortcomings and challenges:  6 plenary Sessions are organised on: the Nature of Science; the Universal Value of Social Science; the scientific approach to complex systems; International cooperation in Science; Science Education; Science and Technology;  13 concurrent thematic debates on the nature of science; the Universal Value of fundamental Science; Science in response to basic human needs; the Scientific approach to complex systems; Science across borders; Sharing scientific knowledge; Science education; Science and the environment; the biological revolution and its implications for health; Science, Agriculture and Food Security; Science ethics and responsibility; Science and Energy; Science and New Materials.   2. Forum II: Science in Society:  6 plenary Sessions on: Public perception of science : between acceptance and rejection; Science for development; Setting priorities in a new socio-economic context; Science : the gender Issue; A new Social Contract for Science; Science for future generations  12 concurrent thematic meetings on: Public perception of Science acceptance and rejection; Science for development; Setting priorities in a new socio-economic context; Science and the Gender Issue; A new social contract for Science; Science, Industry and Knowledge as public good; New Mechanims for funding Science; Scientific Expertise and Complex Decision-making; Joining forces for a Sustainable World; Science and Democracy; Communication and popularising Science; Science and other forms of knowledge.   3. Forum III : Toward a new Commitment to Science :  Review of major outcome and messages of Forum I and II. Plenary Debate on expected Conference outcome and documents to be adopted with presentations from representatives of national delegations; representatives of UN agencies; selected representatives of IGOs, NGOs, private foundations, industrial enterprises and mass media establishments. The Session will be followed by a plenary debate open to all participants of the Conference. In addition, there will be a number of public lectures by eminent scientists and prominent personalities, as well as exhibitions on various aspects of contemporary science. An International Forum of Young Scientists will be held just prior to the Conference, 23-24 June 1999. See : http://www.mtesz.hu/tagegy/diamond/youngsci/index.htm

Draft World Declaration on Science and the use of scientific knowledge (Summary)

The Draft World Declaration emphasises :    that science is a powerful intellectual resource for understanding natural and societal phenomena, that science education and information are indispensable today for decision-makers and for society at large, that access to scientific knowledge is part of the right to education and the right to information belonging to all men and women and that the telecommunication revolution offers new and more effective means of exchanging scientific and educational knowledge; that scientific research and its applications may yield inestimable returns for sustainable human development, that the future of humankind will be more dependent on the equitable production, distribution and use of knowledge than ever before and that scientific issues are largely of a universal nature, know no borders and require international recognition, co-ordination, co-operation and assessment; that some applications of science can be highly detrimental to society, possibly even threatening the continuing existence of the human species, and that science must exclusively serve the cause of peace and that scientific research and the use of scientific knowledge should respect human rights and the dignity of human beings (cf. the relevant provisions of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the Universal Declaration on the Human Genome and Human Rights); that scientists have a special responsibility for averting the adverse applications of scientific research and that the pursuit of science and use of scientific knowledge should respect and maintain life in all its diversity, as well as the life-support systems of our planet, and be in line with appropriate ethical requirements; the importance of indigenous knowledge systems and the need to safeguard and make better use of them as part of our cultural heritage; the need for a new relationship between science and society to cope with such pressing contemporary problems as poverty, environmental degradation, inadequate public health and food and water security, and for a strong commitment to science on the part of governments, civil society and the productive sector, as well as an equally strong commitment of scientists to the well-being of society. It then recalls a number of essential principles and requirements related to :  1. Science for knowledge; knowledge for progress and, in particular, the key role of scientific research in the acquisition of knowledge, in the training of scientists and in the education of the public.  2. Science for peace: calling for an "intellectual and moral solidarity of humankind", as the basis of a culture of peace and the application of natural and social sciences and technology to address the root causes of conflict, and recognising world-wide co-operation among scientists as a valuable and constructive contribution to the peaceful development of human civilization. 3. Science for development, especially the need for building up an adequate and well-shared scientific and technological capacity through appropriate education and research programmes as a fundamental prerequisite for democracy and for ensuring sustainable development and the need to strengthen scientific research in higher education and post-graduate programmes and to develop university-industry co-operation as well as the need for an appropriate protection of intellectual property rights on a global basis. 4. Science in society and science for society, underlining the social responsibility of scientists which implies that they exert a rigorous quality control of their findings, share their knowledge, communicate with the public and educate the younger generation.  The Draft Declaration finally calls on Conference Participants to commit themselves to make every effort to realise the possibility of promoting dialogue between the scientific community and society and to act co-operatively within their respective spheres of responsibility to strengthen scientific culture and its peaceful application throughout the world, and to promote the use of scientific knowledge for peace and development, taking into account the societal and ethical principles illustrated above. Full text at: http://www.unesco.org/science/wcs/eng/declaration_e.htm

Son excellence 
M. Trifunovic Bogdan
Ambassadeur de la République
Socialiste fédérative de Yougoslavie
54, rue de la Faisanderie
75 016 Paris
 

18 February 1999
Ref: 99/226-FE/jh

Your Excellency,

The International Association of Universities, created under the auspices of UNESCO, has, over the past half century, brought together the Universities of the World on the basis of a number of essential and indissociable principles for which every University should stand, namely: the right to pursue knowledge for its own sake and to follow wherever the search for truth may lead; the tolerance of divergent opinion and freedom from political interference; and the obligation as social institutions to promote, through teaching and research, the principles of freedom and justice, of human dignity and solidarity, and to develop mutually material and moral aid on an international level.

The Universities of your own country have taken a major part in giving life to these principles by participating actively in the work of our Association and its governing bodies, the University of Belgrade being itself one of the founding members who have signed the original Charter.

We were therefore greatly disturbed to have learned about the contents of the Law of May 26th 1998 and its consequences for the Universities of Serbia as well as for the principles of academic freedom and university autonomy. The events which have followed the passing of that Law have confirmed the worst fears and have led to a situation which appears to stand in flagrant contradiction to internationally accepted standards and principles.

These principles have been reconfirmed by the International Association of Universities in a recent Statement on Academic Freedom, University Autonomy and Social Responsibility of which you will find copy enclosed. This Statement obtained broad support at the UNESCO World Conference on Higher Education in October 1998. Its basic arguments are reflected in the unanimously adopted final Declaration of the World Conference and the ensuing Framework for Priority Action for Change and Development of Higher Education which explicitly calls upon States, including their governments, parliaments and other decision-makers to:

· establish clear policies concerning higher education teachers, as set out in the Recommendation concerning the Status of Higher-Education Teaching Personnel approved by the General Conference of UNESCO in November 1997; and to

· provide and ensure those conditions necessary for the exercise of academic freedom and institutional autonomy so as to allow institutions of higher education, as well as those individuals engaged in higher education and research, to fulfil their obligations to society.

The Government of Yugoslavia itself has underwritten these principles and has, in particular, adhered to the above mentioned UNESCO Recommendation concerning the Status of Higher Education Teaching Personnel which was unanimously adopted on 13th November 1997 at the 29th Session of the UNESCO General Conference. This International Instrument underlines specifically the importance of institutional autonomy and academic freedom and calls for the necessary guarantees that need to be provided to the academic profession in order to allow it to carry out its essential function to the benefit of Society.

On behalf of the international community of Universities, we strongly appeal to the Serbian authorities to adhere to these fundamental principles and to re-establish such conditions that will allow the Serbian Universities, and the dedicated and recognised academics who have contributed to their international reputation, to meet the important obligations which society has placed upon them.

Yours sincerely,

Wataru Mori         F. Eberhard
President, IAU      Secretary-General, IAU

The stakes of the UNESCO/ICSU World Conference on Science for the 21st Century: a new commitment are clear: analyse the challenges that science are faced with, establish the bases of a new commitment of society as a whole towards science for the benefit of mankind.

Why this Conference and how can a theme such as the participation of women in scientific and technological development be integrated to this deep questioning of the relations between science and society ?

The issue is to «build a new relationship between those who create and use scientific knowledge, those who support and finance it and those who are responsible for its applications and its effects», as is stipulated in the Draft Science Agenda – Framework for Action for the World Conference on Science.

The logics of such a contract imply that the needs of the whole spectrum of society should be taken into account. But we know that, at present, over 90% of decisions at the national and international level are taken by men. The surveys carried out in different parts of the world have shown that women were not only almost totally absent from the corridors of power but very often also from the places where scientific and technological knowledge is created and acquired. The situation is more specifically critical in the developing countries. The industrialized countries have a greater number of active women scientists but, in Europe, for example, the number of women students enrolled in science and technology oscillates between 30% and 40%. The percentage of graduates is far lower, the rate of women university professors in science and technology is between 5% and 15% and the number of women who play a prominent part in the elaboration of national scientific policies is tiny.

Under these circumstances, how can one envisage a large participation of women in the elaboration of scientific knowledge and in the management of its applications? How can one believe in a rapid and harmonious economic growth when there are no women stakeholders? How can one hope for the emergence of a sustainable human development if women do not invest or commit themselves ?

In the framework of the preparation of the Budapest Conference, UNESCO launched a broad consultation on these issues in all the regions of the world : in Latin America, Argentina, in October 1998, in Europe, in Slovenia in November 1998, in Africa, in Burkina Faso in January 1999, in the Mediterranean region, in Italy in January 1999, in the Arab countries, in November 1998 and in Abu-Dhabi, Arab Emirates in April 1999. These regional meetings led to the elaboration of documents which will be distributed during the Budapest Conference. They can already be consulted on the UNESCO Web Site.

There is a general consensus : women are not yet integrated enough in this important cultural field; the reasons for this are well known and universally denounced : socio-cultural factors that depreciate women, lack of family resources, which penalize girls more than boys, unsuited scientific education, a presentation of science that exhaults masculine values, discrimination against women in the exercise of their profession. National and international scientific policies must strive to integrate the will to offer equal opportunities to men and women and make them benefit from the same advantages.

Taking into account the resolutions emanating from the various Summits of the United Nations, UNESCO should be in a position to analyse the situation more globally and stress the political foundations of an action in favour of the participation of women in the progress of science. Offering women the means to acquire a scientific and technological culture and training women scientific élite’s to the highest levels of responsibility, that is to say engaging women in the future of our planet, are not only a duty of justice, but also, and may be above all, a victory of intelligence. 

* Renée Clair is co-ordinator of the UNESCO project «Women, science and technology». e-mail: r.clair@unesco.org

 The «Women and Science» Group of the Collective UNESCO-NGO Consultation has drafted an NGO Manifesto for the World Conference on Science on Women and Science. It will be distributed during the Conference.