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The
term exclusion became popular to use in the late 1980s to
describe the results of the radical economic, industrial and social
changes that where taking place. These changes included long-term
or repeated unemployment, family instability, social isolation and
the decline of neighbourhood and social networks. Social exclusion
was seen to be the outcome of two strands: separation from employment
and separation from social relations, in particularly the family.
The
International
Labour Organisation defines social exclusion as being
"a state of poverty in which individuals cannot access the
living conditions which would enable them both to satisfy theory
essential needs (food, education, health, etc.) and participate
in the development of the society in which they live."(1)
The
European
Union adopted the term, but widened the definition stressing
that social exclusion occurs when people cannot fully participate
or contribute to society because of "the denial of civil, political,
social, economic and cultural rights." It is indicated in the
definitions that exclusion results from "a combination of linked
problems such as unemployment, poor skills, low incomes, poor housing,
bad health and family breakdown."
It
is widely recognised that social exclusion occurs as a result of
shortcomings and failures in the systems and structures of family,
community and society. The term involves understanding both who
is excluded, and how, as well as the results of exclusion. Definitions
of exclusion often resemble those of relative poverty, and the term
is sometimes used interchangeably. However, the concepts are not
identical. Social exclusion does not always involve poverty. For
example, the 'new rich' are often excluded from the social networks
of the established elites in a society, which might have an ethnic
basis. Further, one may consider all categories of foreigners in
a country as being in one way or another 'excluded' due to
their limited access to 'social rights'.
Social
exclusion covers both the causes and effects of poverty, discrimination
and disadvantage. Ideas about exclusion are primarily concerned
with processes (the way things happen), whereas poverty has tended
to be understood as a condition or set of circumstances (the way
things are).
Who
is excluded? Groups, communities and individuals who because
of deprivation, poverty or discrimination are unable to realise
their potential and participate and contribute to society are 'excluded'.
Those identified by the government as vulnerable to exclusion include:
people in poverty; lone parents; unemployed people; disabled people;
people facing discrimination on the grounds of gender, race, sexuality
or disability; homeless people; people with ill health; children
not doing well at school; people with few educational qualifications;
people with low self esteem; people with addiction problems; communities
in areas of deprivation.(2)
Phenomena
of inclusion/exclusion can be observed at different levels of socio-economic
organisation, i.e. local, regional, national and world level.(3)
Research suggest that the nation-state today is abandoning its universalistic
claims and has unleashed a nationalism of resistance to the new
forces such as globalisation and the spectre of increased immigration.
Accordingly, instead of trying to include immigrants, recent trends
suggest that strategies of exclusion are preferred and that a new
dichotomy of Self and Other is gaining ground: nationality is increasingly
defined in opposition to immigrants. One may call the lines that
include and define some people, groups and things while excluding
others for 'symbolic boundaries'.(4) These distinctions can be articulated
through normative interdiction (taboos), cultural attitudes and
practices, and more generally through patterns of likes and dislikes.
They play an important role in the creation of inequalities and
the exercise of power.
(1)
In Smelser, N. J. and Baltes, P. B. (eds.) 2001. International Encyclopaedia
of the Social and Behavioural Sciences. Elsevier. Oxford Science
Ltd.
(2)
Lothian Anti Poverty Alliance 2001. Working Together to End Poverty,
Publications: SPIU Briefings, Briefing Sheet 13, April 2001.
(3)
Korayem, K. and Petlesidou, M. (eds.) 1996. Poverty and Social Exclusion
in the Mediterranean Area, CISS.
(4)
Epstein, C F. 1992. Tinker-bells and Pinups: The Construction and
Reconstruction of Gender Boundaries at Work. In: Lamont M, Fournier
M (eds.) Cultivating Differences: Symbolic Boundaries and the Making
of Inequality, University of Chicago Press, Chicago. Page 232.
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