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Originally
the word xenophobia comes from the Greek words xénos,
meaning 'the stranger' and 'the guest' and phóbos, meaning
'fear'. Thus, xenophobia stands for 'fear of the stranger', but
usually the term is taken to mean 'hatred of strangers' (1). Xenophobia
can be understood as "an attitudinal orientation of hostility
against non-natives in a given population".(2)
In
contrast to sociobiologists who consider xenophobia to be
a universal phenomenon, social scientists describe it as one among
several possible forms of reactions generated by anomic situations
in the societies of modern states. Furthermore, it is growing out
of the existence of essentialist symbolic and normative systems
that legitimate processes of integration
or exclusion.
Thus, xenophobic behaviour is based on existing racist, ethnic,
religious, cultural, or national prejudice. Xenophobia can be defined
as the "attitudes, prejudices and behaviour that reject, exclude
and often vilify persons, based on the perception that they are
outsiders or foreigners to the community, society or national identity."(3)
Xenophobia
and racism
often overlap, but are distinct phenomena. Whereas racism
usually entails distinction based on physical characteristic differences,
such as skin colour, hair type, facial features, etc, xenophobia
implies behaviour based on the idea that the other is foreign to
or originates from outside the community or nation.(4)
Because
differences in physical characteristics are often taken to distinguish
the 'other' from the common community, it is often difficult to
differentiate between racism and xenophobia as motivations for behaviour.
At the same time, expression of xenophobia may occur against people
of identical physical characteristics when such people arrive, return
or migrate to States or areas where occupants consider them outsiders.(5)
In
the 90s, xenophobic outbursts were followed by an increase in acts
of racist violence in several societies in the world. This rise
of xenophobia can be distinguished from the old form of racism leading
to Nazism and Fascism in terms of its ideological roots and causes.
Accordingly, it is possible to talk about a 'new racism' that developed
in the post-war era since racism no longer was based on biological
but rather on cultural differences.
Two
causes are put forward to explain the resurgence of xenophobic
and racist movements towards the end of the twentieth century.
The first cause is new migration patterns that have developed as
an effect of the gradual internationalisation of the labour market
during the postcolonial era. In the receiving countries, social
groups in disfavourable position considered newcomers as competitors
for jobs and public services. This cultivated a social and political
climate that generated xenophobia and racism (i.e. defensive reactions
against migrants), as well as nationalism (i.e. demands that the
state provide better protection against foreigners for its own population).
The second cause believed to reinforce xenophobia and racism is
globalisation. Increased competition between states has led states
to reduce their services in areas of social welfare, education and
healthcare. This reduction influenced in particular the segments
of the population living on the margins of society. These groups
are often in direct competition with migrants for welfare service
and are the main breeding ground for xenophobic and racist ideologies.
Research has shown that severe economic inequalities and the marginalization
of persons from access to basic economic and social conditions give
rise to tensions and manifestations of racism
and xenophobia (6). Those perceived to be outsiders or foreigners,
often migrants, refugees, asylum-seekers, displaced persons, and
non-nationals, are main targets.
At
the same time, xenophobic or racist reactions are not necessarily
aggravated by the presence of a large number of immigrants. There
are examples showing that social decline of specific groups and
right-wing political organisations are sufficient preconditions
for the emergence of xenophobia.(7)
(1)
Smelser, N. J. and Baltes, P. B. (eds.) 2001. International Encyclopaedia
of the Social and Behavioural Sciences. Elsevier. Oxford Science
Ltd.
(2)
Boehnke, Klaude in NGO Working Group on Migration and Xenophobia
for the World Conference (in International Migration, Racism,
Discrimination and Xenophobia, 2001. A publication jointly produced
by ILO, IOM, OHCHR, in consultation with UNHCR. Page 2.
(3)
Declaration on Racism, discrimination, Xenophobia and Related
Intolerance against Migrants and Trafficked Persons. Asia-Pacific
NGO Meeting for the World Conference Against Racism, Racial Discrimination,
Xenophobia and Related Intolerance. Teheran, Iran. 18 February 2001.
(4)
NGO Working Group on Migration and Xenophobia for the World Conference
(in International Migration, Racism, Discrimination and Xenophobia,
2001. A publication jointly produced by ILO, IOM, OHCHR, in consultation
with UNHCR.
(5)
Declaration on Racism, discrimination, Xenophobia and Related
Intolerance against Migrants and Trafficked Persons. Asia-Pacific
NGO Meeting for the World Conference Against Racism, Racial Discrimination,
Xenophobia and Related Intolerance. Teheran, Iran. 18 February 2001.
(6)
NGO Working Group on Migration and Xenophobia for the World Conference
(in International Migration, Racism, Discrimination and Xenophobia,
2001. A publication jointly produced by ILO, IOM, OHCHR, in consultation
with UNHCR.
(7)
Ibid.
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