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Planning equipping and staffing a document reprographic service
James A Keene and Michael Roper
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 In the decade since the publication of A H Leisinger's pioneering work. A Study of the Basic Standards for Equipping, Maintaining, and Operating a Reprographic Laboratory in Archives in Developing Countries, technical advances have been so rapid that they have rendered parts of that work obsolete, although much of what it has to say about basic 35mm roll microfilm technology is still current. Albeit that much of the latest high technology--updatable microfiche, digitable copies, laser printers, etc.--is as yet of little relevance to archival reprographics, especially in developing countries, archivists cannot neglect other advances which have led to technical improvements in microfiche, diaso microfilm, electrostatic copies and offset lithography.
1.2 The purpose of this RAMP study is, therefore, to provide archivists, especially those concerned with planning, commissioning and managing reprographic services, with a survey of current relevant reprographic technology and with guidelines and standards which they can apply in selecting and introducing the technology most appropriate to their own specific situations. It does not set out to be an instruction manual for reprographic technicians; still less it is a guide to the latest technology for reprographic service managers in the more developed countries.
1.3 In particular, it is written with the problems of developing countries, especially those in tropical areas, in mind. Hence account is taken of the difficulties which archivists are likely to encounter in such countries:
a) absence of local reprographic expertise;
b) lack of local manufacturers and suppliers of reprographic equipment and materials and of local maintenance facilities; c) adverse climatic conditions;
d) unsuitable accommodation;
e) a restricted pool of suitably qualified manpower;
f) inadequate technical training facilities;
g) shortage of funds.
1.4 The study is in four parts. The first part describes the basic technology of microforms and hard copy and considers the purposes which an archival reprographic service might serve in relation to that technology and to the documents to be copied. The second part examines the considerations which are relevant to the planning, equipping and staffing of an archival reprographic service, including accommodation requirements and cost factors. The third part outlines the requirements at each stage of a three-stage programme for establishing and developing a basic archival reprographic service. The fourth part summarises the salient points in parts one and two in the form of guidelines.
GUIDELINES
Internal references are to paragraphs in Parts 1 and 2 which provide discussion of the specific guidelines.
13. TECHNICAL GUIDELINES
13.1 General Considerations
13.1.1 Choice of Equipment:
In selecting equipment the objective should be to ensure fitness for purpose with value for money (4.1). To this end:
- equipment should be chosen which will cover the range of specified applications, produce results of the desired standard, be robust enough to survive all local circumstances and be delivered when required (5.1.6).
- equipment need not be more sophisticated than is necessary to meet basic requirements (5.1).
- the range of equipment should not proliferate to the extent that it is not used to its optimum capacity (4.4.6.1).
- where items of equipment form a production chain, their capabilities should be matched (2.7.5.1, 5.1.2).
13.1.2 Choice of Supplier:
In choosing a supplier the objective should be to ensure compatibility of equipment and continuity of support. This may best be achieved by dealing with a single agent (3.4.3). In selecting such an agent consideration should be given to the extent to which he can guarantee:
- maintenance of supplies of spare parts and consumables throughout the life expectancy of the equipment (5.4.1).
- provision of local technical support (5.4.2).
13.1.3 Maintenance:
It is essential that a prescribed maintenance schedule should be followed for each item of equipment (5.2). Where suppliers and manufacturers do not have a local organization to provide such a service, it is of prime importance that:
- staff should be trained to carry out maintenance (5.2.1., 7.2.2)
- plentiful stocks of spare parts should be kept by the archive (5.2.2).
13.1.4 Materials:
Where the range of consumables available locally is limited, it is essential:
- to select materials of proven quality with good prospects of continuity of supplies (5.3).
- to maintain minimum stock levels consistent with delivery times, economies of scale and availability of suitable storage space, avoiding tying up too much space and capital in stocks but not allowing operating to halt because of lack of materials (5.3.2).
13.1.5 Operating Standards:
While it is desirable to meet relevant national or international standards (as summarised in Appendix A):
- there must be room for pragmatism in the light of local circumstances (5.5).
- where essential standards cannot be met under local conditions, consideration should be given to the adoption of systems more suited to those conditions (5.5.1).
13.2 Microfilms
13.2.1 Choice Of Systems:
The purpose for which microfilming is to be undertaken will determine the choice of systems as between:
- roll and flat film format (2.1, 2.2).
- 35mm and 16mm roll film (2.1, 5.1.1).
- silver halide and diazo or vesicular film (2.3.1, 2.3.2).
- see also Chapter 14.
13.2.2 Choice Of Camera:
The camera chosen should meet certain essential requirements:
- it should have the ability to cover the range of filming specified and to meet the standards set.
- the resolving power of the lens should be better than 100 lines to the millimetre across the range of reductions available.
- the lighting balance on the table should be even (5.1.1.1).
- optional extra facilities will be determined by specific requirements (5.1.1.2).
13.2.3 Choice of Microfilm Reader:
The choice of reader is very much a matter of personal preference, but factors to be considered are:
- the image should be sharp over the whole screen.
- in developing countries the simpler the reader the easier it will be to maintain in working condition.
- hence manual drive is to be preferred to motorised drive.
- front projection machines create slightly less eye strain than back projection machines (2.7.7.7, 5.1.4).
13.2.4 Operating Procedures:
Sound operating procedures should include:
- foliating or paginating documents to simplify identification and prove completeness (2.6.1).
- targetting and titling as proof of validity, including the international test target to permit testing for resolution and density (2.6.2).
- careful document handling (2.6.3).
- thorough planning of filming and preparation of material to be filmed (2.6.4).
13.2.5 Quality Control:
Checking film for completeness and quality once it has been processed is essential if the film is to be an acceptable alternative to the original document. This requires:
- a 100 per cent check of all camera negative film for colour and sharpness of image as well as for completeness of content (2.6.5.1).
- a more cursory check of duplicate film for colour and sharpness of image (2.6.5.2).
- testing each camera film for density and resolution (2.6.6.1, 2.6.6.2).
- testing for archival permanence by means of batch sample residual hypo tests (2.6.6.3).
13.3 Hard Copy
13.3.1 Electrostatic Copiers:
In developing countries the general rule should be to choose a simple machine which requires the minimum of maintenance. However, for archival document copying certain special considerations apply:
- the copier must have flat-bed fixed platen (3.2.1.1).
- where large quantities of hard copy from volumes are required, an overhead electrostatic copier in which the document does not come into contact with the camera may be justified (4.4.6.2).
- copiers which use coated paper are usually less expensive to purchase, but the paper is more expensive and does not keep well in tropical conditions (3.1.4.1).
13.3.2 Reader-Printers:
The same considerations apply to reader-printers as to readers (see 13.2.3 above) and to electrostatic copiers (see 13.3.1 above) except that:
- more problems are likely to occur in relation to breakdown and maintenance because of the mixture of technologies and proper service back-up is essential.
- the majority of reader-printers use coated papers, some with limited shelf life in adverse environmental conditions (3.2.2).
13.3. 3 Offset Lithography:
This is one of several forms of duplication available for the production of longer runs of hard copies for administrative purposes (3.1. 7). For use in an archive the requirement will normally be for:
- a simple electrostatic platemaking system (3.2.4.1) an A3 or A4 vacuum fed press with some automated functions (3.2.4.2).
13.3.4 Photography:
Traditional photography still has a role in archives (3.1.8). In choosing equipment the following considerations apply:
- the choice of basic cameras will be determined by the work envisaged and the personal preference of the photographer.
- support equipment requirements will be related to the work envisaged (3.2.5).
14. APPLICATIONS GUIDELINES
14.1 Purpose
The nature and volume of the copying work to be undertaken should determine what equipment is to be obtained, rather than the availability of equipment determining the nature of and volume of work which can be undertaken. It is essential, therefore, to identify the specific purposes which an archival reprographic service will be called upon to meet (4.1).
14.1.1 Security Filming:
The purpose of this is to copy 'vital records' essential for administrative continuity (4.2.1) or records which are basic to a country's history (4.2.2) and to store those copies at a separate secure location. For this purpose:
- most suitable medium is silver halide negative microfilm processed and stored in accordance with international standards
- 35mm roll film using a planetary camera is the most appropriate process if volumes or loose documents of varying shades and sizes to be copied
- 16mm roll film using a flow camera or microfiche using a step and repeat camera are more appropriate if documents are in a standard modern format (4.2.3).
14.1.2 Conservation Copying:
The purpose of this is to copy documents as an alternative to repair (4.3.1) or to prevent wear and tear on heavily used originals (4.3.2). For this purpose:
- the most suitable preservation medium will be 35mm silver halide micro-film processed and stored in accordance with international standards.
- reference copies need not be permanent and diazo or vesicular copies will be cheaper and harder wearing.
- in certain circumstances photographic processes, possibly using special lighting, may be called for (4.3.3).
14.1.3 Diffusion:
There may be advantages to an archive and its users in making copies of documents widely available for reference use at dispersed locations (4.4.1), in the form of microfilm publications (4.4.3) or in response to specific customer orders (4.4.4., 4.4.5). Similar advantages may accrue from copying current records for multiple administrative use (4.4.2). For these purposes:
- microfilm is generally the most suitable medium.
- 16mm roll film produced on a flow camera or by COM is most appropriate to multiple administrative use.
- 16mm roll film produced on a planetary camera or microfiche produced by a step and repeat camera may be technically appropriate for other purposes, but user preferences may still dictate the production of 35mm roll film on a planetary camera.
- except when copying is for current administrative use and is of documents of no archival value, master negatives should be on silver halide film processed and stored to international standards. reference copies need not be permanent and diazo or vesicular copies may be offered as cheaper alternatives to silver halide (4.4.6.1).
- hard copy by means of an office copier may be more suitable for small orders, but restrictions may need to be imposed to minimise the risk of damage to the documents.
- alternatively print from microfilm may be provided, although this will be more expensive (4.4.6.2).
- some special case photography may be the only suitable process (4.4.6.3).
14.1.4 Cultural Heritage:
Many countries, especially developing countries with a colonial past, are undertaking copying programmes of extraneous documents to reconstruct their cultural heritage. In this respect:
- programmes should be carefully planned, preferably on a co-operative basis with neighbouring countries which have a common interest in records in archives in a former metropolitan country (4.5).
- 35mm microfilm is generally the most suitable medium.
- where the archive in which the documents are preserved has a reprographic service which works to archival standards and retains its own silver halide negatives, only a reference copy, which may be diazo or vesicular, need be acquired.
- where the archive does not retain its own master negatives, a silver halide negative processed to international standards should be acquired.
- where that archive does not undertake microfilming to international standards, a commercial bureau may be employed under contract to produce a silver halide negative processed to international standards
- reference copies, which may be diazo or vesicular, should be made from all master negatives acquired as part of a cultural heritage programme (4.5.1).
14.1.5 Administrative Copying:
This covers a wide variety of copying activities for administrative purposes. For such purposes:
- hard copy produced on an office copier will be acceptable where a low volume of output is to bet met (4.6.1).
- hard copy produced on a higher volume office copier or even by offset lithography may be necessary where a medium or high volume of copying is required (4.6.2).
14.1.6 Compaction or Substitution Microfilming:
The microfilming of documents and the destruction of the originals as a space saving measure is likely to be viable only when dealing with the mass of current and semi-current records; but:
- it should only be undertaken after careful costing in comparison with other possible solutions, such as an effective records management programme allied to records centre storage
(4.7.1).
- it is likely to be cost-effective only where a 16mm flow camera can be used.
- costs in relation to processing time will determine whether silver halide is more economical than diazo or vesicular film.
- reference copies should always be on diazo or vesicular film (4.7.2).
15. PLANNING GUIDELINES
15.1 Planning
The successful establishment of a new or extended reprographic service requires careful and detailed preparation and effective control and co-ordination (9.1). This is best achieved within a formalised planning process, which should include the following stages:
- identifying and defining a need (9.2.1).
- identifying possible solutions (9.2.2).
- assessing feasibility (9.2.3).
- decision making (9.2.4).
- operational requirement (9.2.5).
- - implementation (9.5).
- evaluation (9.2.7).
- further development (9.2.8).
15.2 Finance
15.2.1 Financial Provision:
The first essential of planning a project is to ensure that adequate finance will be available at the times when it will be required (8.3). This involves: drawing up and revising, where necessary, accurate and detailed cost estimates (9.3.1). co-ordinating cash flow during the several stages of implementing the project (9.3.3). ensuring that funds will continue to be available for recurrent expenses and that expensive equipment does not lie idle because adequate provision had not been made for its continued operation (9.3.4).
15.2.2 Sources of Funding:
The identification of sources of funding is an essential part of financial planning. Such sources may include:
- aid from international organizations (9.4.1).
- bilateral aid (9 .4.2).
- the national budget (9.4.3).
- the archive's own resources (9.4.4), including cost recovery (8.8).
- cost sharing (9.4.5).
- commercial sponsorship (9.4.6).
15.2.3 Costing:
The costing of reprographic services requires consideration of four main elements (8.1):
- equipment: capital costs will include in addition to the basic equipment costs (8.2.1.1) freight and delivery charges, assembly and installation costs, duty and taxes (8.2.1.2): recurrent costs will include regular maintenance (8.2.2.1), repairs (8.2.2.2) and spare parts (8.2.2.3).
- materials: the stock of materials held and the rate of supply necessary to maintain optimum levels will vary with the rate of use and the ease of replenishment (8.3.1): a sound stock control system should be introduced to ensure that materials
- are used efficiently (8.3.2).
- accommodation: in addition to capital costs (8.5.2), provision should be made for recurrent costs such as rental (actual or notional) (8.5.2.1), maintenance (8.5.2.2) and services (8.5.2.3).
- staff: in addition to salary costs and other staff benefits (8.7.1), provision should be made for training costs (8.7.2.1) and administrative overheads (8.7.2.2).
15.3 Accommodation and Services
15.3.1 Premises:
In planning accommodation for an archival reprographic service a number of factors have to be taken into account:
- the floor loading should be adequate for the weight of the equipment ( 6.1.1).
- the light should be excluded from darkroom areas and reduced elsewhere ( 6.1.2).
- ceiling height should be sufficient to give adequate clearance above equipment (6.1.3).
- an equable working environment should be provided (6.1.4).
- the size should be adequate to accommodate the range of equipment and processes and to meet the scale of operation (6.2).
15.3.2 Modular construction:
Where it is intended that a reprographic service should be developed over a period of time:
- it may be cost effective to provide at each stage of development only sufficient accommodation to meet immediate needs.
- this objective may be achieved within an outline plan for a fully developed service by modular construction (6.3.1).
- an exception to modular construction would be the darkroom, which may best be constructed as a single unit at the outset (6.3.2).
15.3.3 Layout:
The positioning of equipment will depend upon the range of processes and the type and scale of operations (6.4). However, a number of general principles should be observed:
- layout should be related to workflow (6.4.1).
- the positioning of individual items of equipment should maximise the comfort and convenience of the operators (6.4.2).
15.3.4 Location:
The location of a reprographic service within the archive will vary with circumstances, but so far as possible:
- it should be planned with regard to its relationships to other archival services (6.5).
- the optimum location should be established by the same principles of workflow as determine its internal layout (6.5.1).
15.3.5 Services:
Guaranteed standards of supply of services are desirable and where these are not met by the normal public supply, special arrangements should be made (6.6). The services which will have to be provided are: electricity: it is essential to match the voltage of equipment and the supply (6.6.1.1), to maintain a standard voltage (6.6.1.2) and to provide adequate power outlets (6.6.1.3).
- water: maintenance of optimum pressure is essential (6.6.2.1), as also is temperature control (6.6.2.2) and quality control (6.6.2.3).
- drainage should be capable of disposing of large quantities of liquid chemical waste (6.6.3.1).
- ammonia supply for diazo processing poses health and safety problems and requires special provision (6.6.3.2).
15.3.6 Storage Areas:
Provision should be made for:
- a strong room for documents which are in use, constructed to archival storage standards (6.7.1).
- a materials store large enough to hold the normal level of stocks in an equable environment (6.7.2).
- a microfilm library and archive: special storage is required for silver halide camera negatives and for reversal working masters and this should meet international microfilm storage standards; it is desirable that separate accommodation should be provided at two locations as soon as possible so that camera negatives may be kept apart from reversal masters
(6.7.3).
15.4 Implementation
The implementation of a plan to establish or develop and archival reprographic service will involve:
- the identification of the detailed activities which form part of the plan and the placing of them within a forecast timetable.
- the co-ordination of these interrelated activities, monitoring progress and adapting to meet unforeseen circumstances (9.5).
15.4.1 Co-ordination:
The interrelated activities which require co-ordination:
- cash flow (9.3.3, 9.5.1)
- construction or conversion of accommodation (9.5.2).
- connection of services (9.5.3).
- delivery of equipment and materials (9.5.4).
- installation and testing of equipment (9.5.5).
- recruitment and training of staff (9.5.6).
16. STAFF GUIDELINES
16 .1 Numbers
These will be dependent upon the range of processes and the scale of operations, but as a general rule:
- a minimum of three staff members should be provided.
- complements in excess of this may be calculated on the basis of work rates (7.1).
16.2 Functions
As a general rule it is desirable that staff should perform a variety of functions, but:
- some functions require more skill and experience than others and may be reserved for senior operators (7.2).
- a single person should be designated as storekeeper (7.2.1).
- a mechanic should be employed to maintain equipment (7.2.2).
16.3 Management
16.3.1 Archival Management:
An archivist should be responsible for:
- planning and implementing the establishment of the reprographic service (9.1).
- determination of overall priorities.
- co-ordination with other technical and archival services.
- financial control (7.3.1).
16.3.2 Technical Superintendence:
A senior technician should be responsible for:
- day-to-day control of operations.
- determination of immediate priorities in the light of guidelines provided by archival management.
- management of staff and allocation of work.
- maintenance of equipment.
- stock control.
- quality control.
- limited delegated financial control (7.3.2) .
16.3.3 Technical Supervision:
When a reprographic service becomes so developed that the several processes operate virtually independently, it may be necessary to appoint supervisors to be responsible for:
- day-to-day management of staff engaged in their respective processes (7.3.3).
16.4 Recruitment
In developing countries it will only rarely be possible to recruit staff with relevant qualifications and experience. Consequently:
- recruitment will have to be on the basis of potential (9.4.1).
16.4.1 Qualifications:
Formal qualifications in reprographics are unlikely to be held; the minimum qualification should be:
- a secondary education, preferably with a technical bias (9.4.1.1).
16.4.2 Qualities:
Candidates for appointment should exhibit:
- manual dexterity.
- mechanical and electrical awareness (9.4.1.2).
16.5 Training
There are only limited opportunities for technical training in reprographics. It will be necessary, therefore:
- to devise a scheme of training combining available local and international opportunities (7.5.1).
16.5.1 Internal Training
This may combine:
- on-the-job training (7.5.1.1).
- training by expert consultants (7.5.1. 2).
- training by manufacturers (7.5.1.3).
16.5.2 External Training:
This may be especially difficult to arrange (7 .5.2). It may include:
- formal courses (7. 5.2.1)
- secondment or instructional visits to established reprographic services (7. 5.2.2).